THE UM! lilAN 
TOV/i.S 



GRANT ALLEN'S 
HISTORICAL GUID S 




Class 









Book^ ULI 



THE UMBRIAN 
TOWNS 



GRANT ALLEN'S HISTORICAL GUIDE 
BOOKS TO THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF 
EUROPE TREATING CONCISELY AND 
THOROUGHLY OF THE PRINCIPAL 
HISTORIC AND ARTISTIC POINTS 
OF INTEREST THEREIN 

By 

J. W. AND A. M. Cruickshank 




NEW YORK 

A. WESSELS COMPANY 

1902 



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PREFACE 



THE compilers of the following pages deeply regret that 
Mr. Grant Allen, who planned this series of Guide- 
Books, should not have lived to develop his ideas 
under his own hand. They had the privilege of seeing him 
at work upon the Guide to Venice, and had some opportu- 
nity of recognising the brilliant powers of observation, and 
the masterly skill in clear and simple exposition which he 
brought to bear upon the subject. Although they have been 
able only very imperfectly to appreciate and follow his 
example, they think it may be for the convenience of readers 
to summarise the aims originally in view. 

The book is not intended to take the place of such guides 
as those of Baedeker or Murray. It does not give informa- 
tion about the details of travel, nor does it notice all monu- 
ments irrespective of their merit or interest. In dealing 
with collections, the object has not been to furnish a cata- 
logue, but to indicate the matters of essential interest, and, 
so far as is possible, to suggest the reason for this interest. 
An attempt has been made to give just enough historical 
tradition to enable the traveller to create for himself an 
atmosphere suitable to the objects which he is engaged in 
studying, and sufficiently detailed to suggest the place 
which they take in the general development of human 
interests. 

Two points of view present themselves in regard to all 
that we see — the manner of the doing of the thing, and the 



6 PREFACE 

object with which it has been done. The one is the point of 
view of the artist ; the other that of the student of human 
nature. An endeavour has been made to appreciate the 
monuments from both points of view. 

It has been thought to be most courteous to those who 
use this book to express opinions quite frankly ; but no 
authority is claimed, and particularly where the sphere of 
the experts may have been trespassed on, nothing more is 
intended than a suggestion for the traveller, to be used as a 
starting-point for his own observations. 

An attempt has been made to note sources of information 
and opportunities for observation which exist in this country. 
In the National Gallery and at South Kensington much 
may be done to prepare the way for enjoying foreign travel. 
Lists of books have been given which deal with the objects 
the traveller is most likely to have in view. References also 
have been inserted to the collections of Italian photographs 
that have done so much for students, and also to the copies 
of paintings now in the National Gallery, from which the 
reproductions of the Arundel Society were made. A collec- 
tion of photographs of the most important objects can be 
easily obtained from London agents, or direct from the 
dealers in Italy, and if these are studied before the journey 
is made, they will be found to add to the significance and 
the interest of travelling. The compilers are conscious that 
errors and misconceptions will be found, and they will value 
the corrections which fellow-students and travellers may be 
able to send them, to the care of the publisher. 

They desire also to express their acknowledgment of the 
assistance they have received from Miss Katharine Wilson, 
who accompanied them upon the journey. In the work «f 
observation as well as of revision, they are greatly indebted 
to her helpful insight. 



PREFACE 7 

It has been said above that there is no intention to give 
information about the detail of travel, but as the question of 
accommodation is more difficult in the smaller towns with 
which this volume deals than in larger places such as 
Florence and Rome, it has been thought best to add a note 
on hotels. In Perugia the Hotel Brufani gives accommoda- 
tion of the best kind, and such as is suitable to all English- 
speaking travellers. In Assisi the hotels have been adapted 
to most of the requirements of modern times. In Spoleto 
and Orvieto the hotels are Italian in character, but the 
proprietors are quite alive to the wants of foreign visitors. 
They are most anxious to do all they can, and the most 
careful attention may be relied upon. At Gubbio the hotel 
is primitive in character, but the same goodwill and desire 
to be useful will be found to exist. 



HOW TO USE THESE GUIDE-BOOKS 

/^ER TAIN parts of this book are intended for reading at 
leisure; they are enclosed in brackets [thus]. The 
divisions of subjects and the most pertinent points in descrip- 
tions and explanations are printed in bold type. 

Descriptions have not always been given in the consecutive 
order in which the subjects actually occur. In the gallery at 
Perugia, for instance, it is thought that a grouping of the 
paintings, as they lead tip to and fall away from the highest 
development of the school, will be found inore interesting 
than a desc7'iption which strictly follows the arrangement of 
the gallery. 

In the Church of S. Francesco, at Assist, an attempt is 
made to group the frescoes as they show the growth of Italian 
art, and not therefore necessarily in the order in which they 
exist in the church. 

It is hoped that, though this plan may take more time, there 
will be more than a corresponding gain in interest. 



CONTENTS 



PAGB 

Preface 5 

How to Use these Guide-Books ..... 8 

Introductory Historical Note on Umbria . n 

Summary of the Monuments 15 

I. Perugia— 

Note on the Annals of Perugia . . . 17 

The Gateways and Walls ...... 25 

Etruscan Perugia 30 

Monuments in the Centre of the Town ... 59 

Churches in the North-Western District of the Town 125 

Churches in the North-Eastern District of the Town 128 

Churches in the South-Eastern District of the Town 129 

Churches in the Western District of the Town . 138 



II. Assisi — 



Introductory Note .... 

The Duorao 

Monuments of the Life of St. Francis 
The Church of S. Francesco . 
Other Churches in Assisi 



144 
147 

153 
167 
242 



III. Orvieto— 

Note on the History and Monuments . . . 250 

Etruscan Orvieto ....... 254 

The Duomo 276 

Other Churches in Orvieto 330 

9 



IO 



CONTENTS 



IV. Smaller Towns— 

Gubbio .... 

Panicale and Citta della Pievc 

Chiusi 

Montefalco 

Spello 

Foligno 

Trevi 

Spoleto 

Index 



335 
343 
345 
358 
363 
365 
369 
37o 

395 



THE UMBRIAN TOWNS 

INTRODUCTORY HISTORICAL NOTE 
ON UMBRIA 

THE Umbrians have been generally regarded as among 
the most ancient of the races in Italy, and at one time 
their territory was widely extended. 

Successive waves of conquest gradually forced the Um- 
brians from the valley of the Po and from the coasts of the 
Adriatic, so that for several centuries before our era they 
were confined to the mountain ranges and to the valleys of 
the Apennines in Central Italy. 

The first conquerors that we know of as limiting the 
Umbrian boundaries were of Etruscan race. This people 
settled throughout a large part of Central Italy, from Lom- 
bardy in the north to Campania in the south. Such ancient 
centres of life as Orvieto and Perugia are full of evidence of 
Etruscan life, and their remains are widely spread through- 
out Umbria. 

The close connection between the two peoples is of im- 
portance in the history of Central Italy, for the Etruscans 
were the most advanced, and the most highly civilised, 
of all the contending races in the country. 

The next limitation of Umbria was the result of the Celtic 
invasion of Italy in the fourth century B.C. The Celts 
advanced along the Adriatic coast from the north, while 
tribes of Italian origin coming from the south established 
themselves on the same coast, and thus the Umbrians were 



12 THE UM BRIAN TOWNS 

confined to the inland and mountainous parts of the country. 
They ceased to be a powerful people, and offered but a 
feeble defence against invasion. 

In 396 B.C., the capture of the Etruscan city of Veii, some 
eleven miles from Rome, opened the way for the advance of 
the Republic into Central Italy, and within the next hundred 
years the power of Eome was established throughout 
Umbria. In 309 B.C., the Etruscans and their allies were 
defeated at the Vadimonian Lake, near the modern town 
of Orte ; and in 296 B.C., a still more crushing defeat was 
inflicted on the Etruscans, Celts, Samnites, and Umbrians at 
Sentinum, near the modern Sassoferrato. 

One of the most important results of the Roman conquest 
was the making of the Flaminian Way in the year 220 B.C. 
This road stretched from Rome to Rimini, passing Narni, 
Nocera, Cagli, the Furlo Pass, Fossombrone, and Fano-; 
there was also a branch leading to Ancona. By this means 
the upland valleys of the Apennines were connected on the 
one hand with the capital, and on the other with the seaports 
of the Adriatic. The busy traffic of this great highway led 
to the development of many towns on its route, and to the 
prosperity of places such as Spoleto, Trevi, Foligno, and 
Spello. 

The Roman province of Umbria included Central Italy 
east of the Tiber, with a coast line on the Adriatic extending 
roughly from Rimini to Ancona ; to the north it included 
the upper valley of the Arno known as the Casentino, and to 
the south the river Nar divided it from the Sabine country. 

During the time of the Social War, B.C. 90, Umbria and 
Etruria did not join in the rising of the Italian allies against 
Rome, and the people of both nations received the Roman 
franchise. 

In the long warfare between the Imperial power of Rome 
and the Barbarians during the fifth and sixth centuries 
of our era, the province of Umbria shared the fate of the 
rest of Italy. The siege of Perugia, in which the town was 
attacked by the Gothic King Totila and defended by the 
Bishop S. Ercolano, and the great defeat of King Totila by 



INTRODUCTORY HISTORICAL NOTE 13 

N arses, the General of the Emperor Justinian, near Gualdo, 
are incidents which connect Umbria with the history of this 
great struggle. It was not until the Lombard conquest of 
Italy in 568 A.D. that the province had any individual im- 
portance. Under the new conquerors the country was 
divided into a number of dukedoms ; one of the principal of 
these had its capital at Spoleto and included a large part 
of Umbria. 

The Lombards were nearly always at feud with the Pope. 
They were far more barbarous enemies than the Goths, and 
as their power grew the position of the Roman See became 
intolerable. In the middle of the eighth century the power 
of the Frankish rulers of German and Gaulish lands had 
become vested in the Arnulfings or Karlings, a family of 
great personal distinction and capacity. It was from Pippin, 
King of the Franks, that Pope Stephen begged for help 
against the Lombards. The King crossed the Alps and 
defeated the enemies of the Pope in 755, and it is said that 
the Frankish conqueror granted or confirmed to the Pope 
possession of large territory, mainly in Central Italy. 
When Pippin's son Charles completed the conquest of the 
Lombards in 774, the donation previously made is supposed 
to have been confirmed, and thus the Pope became possessor 
of a title which was never relinquished, although many gene- 
rations passed away before it was effectually enforced. 

The Frankish conquest of Northern and Central Italy 
involved a strengthening of barbarian influence. Margraves 
and Counts formed the chiefs of a landed aristocracy founded 
on feudal ideals at variance with those of the municipal 
society of Greece and Rome. 

In the year 800 the Pope crowned Charles as Emperor, 
and thus we find throughout mediaeval Italian history a 
Teutonic Emperor and a feudal aristocracy— set against 
a Pope and the dwellers in towns representing, for the 
most part, the traditions of Roman civilisation. 

From time to time these Teutonic Emperors crossed the 
Alps and exercised a disturbing influence on Italian politics ; 
nevertheless, the most permanent and persistent forces at 



14 THE UM BRIAN TOWNS 

work in moulding the life of Central Italy, consisted (i) in 
the influence of the Church, claiming in many parts of the 
country paramount power ; (2) in the power of the nobles, 
tending towards the tyranny of some great family ; (3) in 
the power of the citizens organised under trade guilds. 

The history of the Italian communes is really the story of 
the struggle between the Latin and Teutonic ideal. To a 
large extent this took the form of war between the nobles 
and the citizens, and it constituted the serious element lying 
behind the faction fights of Guelphs and Ghibellines. 

The power of the Pope grew very slowly, and it was only 
after the return from Avignon and the closing of the schism 
by the election of Martin V. in 14 17 that the political in- 
fluence of the Church became a constant and increasing 
element in Italian politics. The wars waged by Julius II. 
early in the sixteenth century, and the building of the great 
fortress in Perugia by Paul III. in 1540, mark the realisation 
of the dreams of Pope Stephen when, eight hundred years 
before, he called the King of the Franks across the Alps. 

By the side of the Italian communes and far from the 
Court of Rome there was growing up a third power of which 
little is heard in the din of mediaeval conflict. This was the 
Duchy of Savoy. In the middle of the eleventh century 
the power of this house was founded by the marriage of a 
Count of Maurienne who owned the western side of the Mont 
Cenis Pass, with a daughter of the Count of Turin who held 
the Castle of Susa on the Italian side. One family thus 
came into possession of the highway over the mountains. 
From this beginning the house of Savoy grew in power and 
influence. In 1720 the chief of the house took the title of 
King of Sardinia. In March i860 there was added to this 
kingdom a large part of Central Italy. In 1861 the King of 
Sardinia was proclaimed King of Italy, and in 1870 Rome 
was made the capital of a united nation under the rule of 
the house which had been founded eight hundred years 
before. 



SUMMARY OF THE 

MONUMENTS 

THE most important monuments in the district with 
which this book deals may be epitomised as fol- 
lows : — 

Etruscan life underlying the civilisation of the country 
may be studied in the tombs near Perugia, around Orvieto, 
and in the neighbourhood of Chiusi. The museums in the 
same towns have valuable collections illustrating Etruscan 
life and civilisation in a variety of ways. 

The remains of Roman life exist in many directions, the 
most important being those of the Arco di Agosto in Perugia, 
the Temple of Minerva in Assisi, the Roman Arches in 
Spoleto, and the remains in and around Spello. 

The Romanesque populations have left memories on the 
Rocca of Spoleto, in the Duomoand the Church of S. Pietro 
in the same town, in the Duomo at Assisi, and at S. Costanzo 
near Perugia. 

Of the Gothic style there are two of the best examples 
in Italy, viz., the Church of S. Francesco at Assisi and the 
Duomo at Orvieto. 

Some of the finest Pisan and Florentine sculpture of the 
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries may be studied on the 
Fountain at Perugia, in the monument of Pope Benedict XI. 
in S. Domenico at Perugia, and on the pillars between the 
doors of the Duomo at Orvieto. 

The application of mosaic to the purposes of an entire 
fagade can be seen nowhere so fully carried out as at 
Orvieto. 

15 



1 6 THE UM BRIAN TOWNS 

The history of the development of Italian painting is to 
be found on the walls of S. Francesco at Assisi, and in this 
respect no single monument can compare in importance 
with it. 

The art of the Umbrian school as it developed in the 
fifteenth century is exemplified in the Sala del Cambio at 
Perugia, and in the frescoes at Citta della Pieve, Panicale, 
Foligno, Trevi, and Spello. The rise and fall of the 
Umbrian school may be most conveniently studied in the 
gallery at Perugia. 

The art of the fifteenth century apart from the Umbrian 
school has one of its most magnificent developments in the 
SLgnorelli frescoes in the Chapel of Madonna di S. Brizio at 
Orvieto. 

The use of painting and sculpture to set forth schemes of 
theology and philosophy was common in Italian art. Ex- 
amples occur in S. Francesco at Assisi, on the Fountain and 
in the Sala del Cambio in Perugia, at S. Pietro in Spoleto, 
and in the sculpture, the painting, and the mosaic on the 
Duomo at Orvieto. 



PERUGIA 

NOTE ON THE ANNALS OF PERUGIA IN 
THE MIDDLE AGES 

MANY chronicles relating to the history of the town 
have been preserved, and many historians have 
written of the events which happened within her 
walls ; but the best of them agree that there is great doubt 
in regard to the facts, and the causes which produced the 
events are often still more obscure. 

The following notes are not therefore to be regarded as 
an accurate historical statement. Nothing more is attempted 
than a brief outline of current tradition respecting circum- 
stances affecting Perugia in the Middle Ages. 

Repeated conquests by Goths early in the fifth century, 
by Lombards (568 A.D.), and Franks (774 A.D.) produced in 
Italy a population composed of many races, none of which 
willingly joined with the others to form a truly organic 
society. An illustration of this is found in the maintenance 
of various systems of law, so that of people living in the 
same town some might claim to be ruled by Roman and 
some by Lombard law. 

The natural order of things in Italy ceased to exist after 
the settlement of the Teutonic tribes, for the lower form of 
civilisation was politically predominant. The men who 
owned the land and who ruled the country were of barbarian 
descent, while the more highly civilised descendants of the 
Latin races were the landless dwellers in the towns. 

The Church alone united in herself all the best elements 
of the national existence ; she inherited classical culture from 
the ancient civilisation, she modelled her organisation on 



I a PERUGIA 

that of Imperial Rome, she was heir to the enormous wealth 
representing the spiritual life, the terrors, and the devotion 
of generations. With the organisation and the influence of 
Imperial Rome, the Church inherited the desire for tem- 
poral dominion, and to some extent this interfered with her 
efficiency as the most powerful defender of Latin traditions 
in opposition to Teutonic civilisation. The claims of the 
Church to the possession of territories in Central Italy fre- 
quently alienated the sympathies of the town populations, 
who were otherwise her natural allies, and though it is unfair 
to say that the Church was the source of Italian divisions, it 
is true that her temporal ambition stood in the way of her 
power to make for peace and unity. 

Between the mediaeval Empire and its Margraves and 
Counts and the mediaeval Church, there was the inherent 
opposition due to two different ideals of life. Between 
the Church and the town dwellers of Italy there was only 
the occasional and temporary opposition due to the quarrels 
of two closely connected powers. The Church and the 
townsmen stand for Latin life; the Germanic Empire, 
the Lombard Dukes, the Frankish Margraves, Counts, 
and landowners represent Teutonic life. 

For centuries the struggle between these two ideals con- 
tinued ; the faction fights of Guelph and Ghibelline repre- 
senting only a short and comparatively unimportant phase of 
a division which affected every relation of life and the de- 
velopment of all human energies. 

Although some towns, such as Pisa, Siena, and Arezzo 
were usually found supporting the Teutonic Empire, partly 
owing to local conditions and to jealousy of trade rivals who 
took the other side, nevertheless it remains true that the 
townsmen were of the Latin party, and that when no question of 
political domination interfered they were allies of the Church. 

In the introductory note on the general history of Umbria 
it has been stated that when the Frankish kings Pippin and 
Charles overthrew the power of the Lombards, they granted 
or confirmed to the Pope the possession of certain parts of 
Italy. There is doubt about what actually happened, but 



NOTE ON THE ANNALS OF PERUGIA 19 

there need be no doubt that the Pope asserted a claim to 
sovereignty over Perugia and the surrounding country. 

The practical effect of this overlordship was serious or not 
according to circumstance. It did not become persistent 
until the fifteenth century, and it was not established beyond 
question till Paul III. built his great fortress in 1540. 

The gradual breaking up of the Karling Empire, which 
occupied the century and a half succeeding the death of 
Charles the Great (814-962), has left no traces in the history of 
Perugia that need concern us. But the re-establishment 
of the Teutonic Empire under Otto the Great (962-973) 
and the purification of the Papacy effected by Hildebrand 
(1013?-1085) mark a new era in the history of Italy and 
indeed of the whole western world. After this revival the 
Imperial power in Central Italy was represented by a 
Marquis. In 1027 Boniface the Pious was appointed to this 
office, and as he was the holder of many fiefs in Lombardy 
his position became one of power and dignity. He was 
succeeded in the Imperial Marquisate as well as in his other 
possessions by his descendants, of whom the great Countess 
Matilda was the last. Her territory extended from Mantua 
in the north to Chiusi and the neighbourhood of Perugia in 
the south. 

The death of the Countess Matilda in 1 1 1 5 removed the 
direct pressure of external authority, and was the opportunity 
for the beginning of a vigorous and semi-independent life in 
many Italian communes, for though the Empire and the 
Papacy had their respective claims to the allegiance of the 
people, the quarrels of these two great powers left the towns 
a good deal of scope. War between the Church and the 
Empire began in the eleventh century under Hildebrand 
and Henry IV. During the early part of the twelfth century 
the quarrel proceeded fitfully, but after the accession of 
Barbarossa it broke out afresh, and never ceased till the 
Empire was exhausted a century later. The struggle was 
carried on by the three Hohenstauffen emperors, Frederick 
Barbarossa(i 1 52-1 190), Henry VI. (1 190-1 197), and Frederick 
II. (1220-1250). On the other side, the Papacy was repre- 



20 PERUGIA 

sented by such men as Alexander III. (1159-1181), Innocent 
III. (1 198-12 16), Gregory IX. (1227-1241), and Innocent IV. 

(1243-1254)- 

The contest was many-sided. It was a war between the 
spiritual and the temporal power on points of jurisdiction ; 
it was a war between an Italian power and a foreign in- 
vader ; and, more than all, it was a war between ideals, 
between Roman and barbarian, between a municipal civili- 
sation and a feudal society. During this long duel the 
towns were, as a rule, against the Hohenstauffens and the 
feudal nobility. The result of the contest was the downfall 
of the Teutonic Empire so far as Italy was concerned, and 
the communes gained greatly in power and in vigorous and 
independent life. The period of conquest and victory came 
to an end with the battles of Beneventum (1266) and 
Tagliacozzo (1268), in which the Hohenstauffen power was 
destroyed, and the triumph of the Guelph party was 
assured. 

At the beginning of this period, Frederick Barbarossa 
visited Perugia (1166 a.d.) when at the height of his power. 
The city submitted itself to him, and it is said that some of 
the noble families, including the Baglioni, were descended 
from soldiers who settled in the city at this time. Again, in 
1 185, Henry, the son of Barbarossa, came to Perugia, and 
granted many privileges, including castles and lands, and 
particularly all that the Countess Matilda had owned within 
Perugian territory. The death of the Emperor Henry VI. 
in 1 197, and the accession of Innocent III. in 1198, re- 
established papal influence. 

There was, however, no great exercise of authority on the 
part of the Pope, and at the beginning of the thirteenth 
century it is evident that the government of the city was 
based on the Trade Guilds, associations which in all the 
Italian communes formed the rallying point for the towns- 
men against the aggression of the nobles. 

The executive power of the city was in the hands of Con- 
suls of the Arts, the judicial power was exercised by a 
Podesta, who was chosen from some other town, and the 



NOTE ON THE ANNALS OF PERUGIA 21 

armed force was commanded by a Captain of the People. 
Behind these executive powers the legislative power was 
exercised by a number of Councils, the most important of 
which were a Council of the Rectors of the Arts or Guilds, 
and a Council of 500 " good men " of the Arts. 

About the middle of the thirteenth century we begin to 
find mention of a " studio," a scholastic guild, such as grew 
up in many towns without authorisation of Pope or emperor, 
" a product," says Mr. Rashdall (" Universities of Europe," 
vol. ii. part i.) "of that instinct of association which swept 
like a great wave over the towns of Europe in the 
eleventh and twelfth centuries." This " studio " developed 
into a University, and received papal recognition early in 
the fourteenth century. Its work was helped by the founda- 
tion of two houses for the residence of foreign students. 
These were known as the Sapienza Vecchia (founded in 
1368), and the Sapienza Nuova (founded in 1427). 

Throughout the thirteenth century the city does not seem 
to have suffered much from civil strife. There were three 
parties, the nobles, the rich burghers, and the people ; but 
in the struggle with the Empire they probably found an 
outlet for their energies. The rich burghers were called 
"Raspanti," and the people, the "popolo minuto," were 
known as " Beccherini." 

After the defeat and death of the Hohenstauffen King 
Manfred in 1266, although the Guelph party was supreme, 
there was still unrest, and towards the end of the century 
there were signs of a change in the form of government. 

In the later years of the thirteenth century the chief 
executive power was in the hands of Consuls, the pre- 
decessors of the Priors who are first mentioned in the 
early years of the fourteenth century. Both seem to have 
depended upon the Trade Guilds, and it is pretty certain 
that the changes, whatever they may have been, were made 
in the interests of the Guelph party. 

To understand the city politics of this time we must turn 
for a moment to the relation of the Papacy with the Empire 
and with France. The Empire had not recovered from the 



22 PERUGIA 

shock of the overthrow of the Hohenstauffens, and except 
in the case of fruitless expeditions under Henry VII. (1308- 
1313) and Louis of Bavaria (1314-1347), Italy was free from 
direct interference. The power of the King of France had, 
however, grown as that of the Empire declined, and the 
high-handed policy of Pope Boniface VIII. (1294-1303), 
together with the unscrupulousness of Philip the Fair, 
King of France (1285-1314), ended in the downfall of 
the political power of the Papacy. Benedict XL, the suc- 
cessor of Boniface VI II., died in Perugia in 1304, and the 
election which followed led to the seventy years' residence 
of the papal court at Avignon. 

It thus happened that for a large part of the fourteenth 
century, the Italian communes were left to develop in com- 
parative freedom. 

In Guelph cities this state of things favoured the rich 
burghers, since the nobles had suffered along with the 
Hohenstauffens, and the spoils of the defeated party had 
fallen into the hands of the most influential and powerful 
men among the Guelphs. We find therefore that in Peru- 
gia, during the first seventy years of the fourteenth century, 
the "popolo grasso," or Raspanti, held the rule of the 
city mainly in their hands. The government was still 
founded on the organisation of the Trade Guilds, but the 
election to the higher offices, partly controlled by nomination 
and partly the result of lot, were fenced about by rules ex- 
cluding all participation in the government of the city by 
the nobles. This spirit of exclusion was carried so far that 
a fine was imposed upon any noble who entered the palace 
of the Priors. Such a policy was not peculiar to Perugia, 
and we cannot wonder that it should have led to plots 
against the ruling class in the city. Between the years 
1360 and 1370 there was frequent strife, and in 1368, when 
the victorious Raspanti had beheaded a number of their 
opponents, the Pope interfered, and declared that those 
who were slain were his friends. As the government by 
the rich burghers had caused dissatisfaction in other ways, 
the city turned against them, and a series of papal legates 



NOTE ON THE ANNALS OF PERUGIA 23 

ruled until 1376, when all classes rose against the legate, the 
Abbot of Mommaggiore, and drove him out. This revolu- 
tion resulted in the establishment of a government by the 
"popolo minuto," in which neither nobles nor Raspanti 
were allowed to have a part. The change, however, pro- 
duced no better results, and in 1393 Biordi Michelotti, the 
leader of the Raspanti, established himself in the lordship of 
the city. He was murdered in 1398, and so distracted and 
divided were the citizens that they actually gave up the 
town to the Duke of Milan in exchange for protection. 
The failure of the "popolo grasso" and the "popolo 
minuto" naturally helped to improve the position of the 
nobles who had been driven from the city. At the head 
of this party was an able Condottiere, Braccio Fortebraccio 
(1416-1424), who succeeded in making good his rule in the 
town in 1416. The battle in which he was victorious over 
Carlo Malatesta, the Condottiere employed by the townsmen, 
is said to be represented in a picture by Paolo U cello, now 
in the National Gallery. 

It was during the rule of Fortebraccio that by the efforts 
of a General Council of the Church the scandal of three Popes 
all claiming the allegiance of the faithful was brought to an 
end. Martin V., of the Roman family of the Colonna, was 
elected in 141 7, and the consolidation of the power of the 
Papacy brought the period of popular government in 
Perugia to a close. The new line of Popes adopted the 
side of the nobles and favoured the government of the town 
by the heads of that party. Piccinino, a famous Condottiere 
and a native of Perugia, was the chief man in the city from 
1442 till his death in 1444. This, however, was only an 
interlude, the general trend of affairs put more and more 
power into the hands of the nobles, the chief among their 
leaders being members of the Baglioni family. During the 
latter part of the fifteenth century Guido Baglioni was the 
most important man in the State. Papal patronage since 
the time of Martin V. enabled the nobles to hold their own 
against the citizens, but it could not insure peace within the 
ranks of the party itself. The families of the Baglioni and 



24 PERUGIA 

the Oddi were at the head of two opposing factions, and the 
strife was the more bitter, inasmuch as it was the result of 
personal rivalry and not of any question of principle. This 
feud is typical of many that had preceded it, and its issue 
in the exile of the beaten faction is an example of constant 
recurrence in Italian history. 

The whole story illustrates the social life of Perugia so 
admirably, and allows us to see how complete was the 
political disintegration of the time, that it may be worth 
telling at length. 

It was on Saturday, the 25th October 1488, soon after 
midnight, that cries of " Oddi " and " Baglioni " were heard 
in the piazza, and all night the people stood in arms. On 
Sunday each side waited and watched the other. 

On Monday the shops were closed, and the Baglioni 
faction fortified and garrisoned the Duomo, while the Oddi 
fortified their houses in the district of the Via Verzaro and 
the Piazza degli Aratri. 

On Tuesday there was much hard fighting, the object of 
the Oddi being to try to enter the piazza ; but the Corg- 
neschi barred the way from the Porta Susanna and the 
Baglioni commanded the other entrances. On that evening 
the Fathers of the Osservanza, Guido Baglioni himself, and 
some of the wives of the Oddi who were themselves Bag- 
lioni, tried to make peace. On Wednesday the whole city 
was under arms, and the artisans gathered in the Loggia 
of the Duomo demanding that the turmoil should cease. 
On Thursday Guido Baglioni began to burn the houses of 
the friends of the Oddi, until at last these latter, knowing 
that the Baglioni could get help from outside, and being 
counselled by Simone of the Oddi, agreed to leave the 
town, and on that night, the 30th October, thirty-seven 
men of the Oddi and six hundred of their friends went out 
by the Porta Susanna and so to Castiglione del Lago. 

After the expulsion of the Oddi, "though there were 
famous and worthy men in the city, there were every day 
to be seen new excesses, and the city was without reason 
and justice." Many legates were sent by the Pope, but 



NOTE ON THE ANNALS OF PERUGIA 25 

they had no authority. All the offices were to be bought, 
and extortion and oppression caused all men to lament. 
Upon the Baglioni fell the greatest punishment, however, 
for family feuds and rivalries led to a plot by which Grifone 
Baglioni hoped to slay all his kinsmen and attain the lord- 
ship of the city. Guido, the head of the house, with several 
of his sons and nephews, fell. One, however, Gianpaolo, 
" made wise and prudent by God at this point," thought of 
going into the house of a private citizen, and so leaving a 
man-at-arms to defend the staircase, he escaped by the 
roofs of neighbouring houses, and took refuge in the rooms 
of some foreign students. After having eaten, and clothed 
himself as a scholar, he went in company with two of them 
through the Porta Eburnea. Returning with soldiers he had 
no difficulty in establishing his power in the city, and those 
concerned in the conspiracy were punished. This happened 
in 1500, and for twenty years Gianpaolo ruled. He met his 
match at last in the Medici Pope Leo X., who, having be- 
come suspicious of him, invited him to Rome in 1520. So 
on the 1 2th March, on a Monday, on the feast of S. Gregory, 
there left from Perugia Gianpaolo, and entered the Castle 
of S. Angelo in Rome to have audience of the Pope. He 
was made prisoner, and on the nth June his head was 
cut off, and he was buried that same evening in S. Maria 
Transpontina. It is affirmed that he went to death "very 
patiently, and with great devotion confessed many times, 
and obtained from the Pope all the indulgences, so much 
so that the Frati, who were at his death and confession, 
affirm that he died in great holiness." 

Twenty years after this, Paul III. finally subjugated the 
city by building a fortress, which was destroyed only in our 
own time when Italy was united as a free people under the . 
leadership of the house of Savoy. 

THE GATEWAYS AND THE WALLS 

There is no more easy or interesting way to make an 
acquaintance with the town of Perugia than to visit the 



26 PERUGIA 

ancient gateways and such parts of the old walls as 
are accessible and may yet be seen. These are the 
remains of the earliest life of the town. The large 
blocks of stone which form the lower courses of the gate- 
ways and appear in some parts of the walls are attributed 
to Etruscan builders. Above is seen the more modem 
work of the Romans, particularly at the Arco di Agosto, 
while in other cases a mediaeval battlement, as at the 
Porta Eburnea, reminds us of the struggles between the 
nobles and people in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. 

The Arco di Agosto is reached by passing to the north 
of the Duomo and going down the Via Vecchia. The 
architectural forms of this arch are of the simplest. The 
Roman part of the building is supposed to have been 
finished about eighty years before the building of the Arch 
of Constantine in Rome, and although there is no sculptural 
decoration and no attempt at magnificence, the gateway of 
Perugia is a more impressive monument than that erected 
to the glory of the Emperor. The most interesting part of 
the walls may be seen by climbing the steep path, which 
is really a staircase, to the left of the gateway. It leads to 
a little terrace at the top, from which there is a magnificent 
view. To the extreme right is seen one of the outlying spurs 
of Monte Subasio. To the north are the Apennines about 
Gubbio, to the west is Monte Pacciano, the source of the 
mediaeval water supply. In the near foreground is the 
Church of S. Agostino, beyond it is the circular Church of 
S. Angelo, and the mass of brickwork of the time of Forte- 
braccio which marks the Porta S. Angelo. The whole of 
this north-western arm of the town is set on a ridge, from 
which steep valleys, covered with vines and olives, run 
sharply down into the low country. 

We may reach another point in the Etruscan walls where 
they are pierced by a gateway in the Via Appia. A sharp 
turn to the left down a narrow passage at the top of the Via 
Vecchia leads to this street. It begins as a staircase, and 
reaches the north-eastern part of the town near the Museum 
on a series of arches. 



THE GATEWAYS AND THE WALLS 27 

The Via Bontempi leads from the little piazza in front 
of the main entrance of the Duomo, steeply down the hill, 
and so on to the Porta Pesa at the north-eastern corner of 
the city. The Etruscan walls are pierced by the ancient 
gateway of the Porta Sole about half-way down the Via 
Bontempi. 

The ancient gateway at the south-eastern coiner of the 
city is reached from the Piazza Sopramuro by going along 
the Via del Ospedale and turning down the Via S. Ercolano. 
The Etruscan gate is about half-way down this steep stair- 
way. The best point of view is from the piazza in front of 
the Church of S. Ercolano. Near by, on the other side of 
this church, the remains of the ancient Porta Marzia have 
been built into the bastion, which has taken the place of 
the fortress of Paul III., destroyed since the establishment 
of the kingdom of United Italy. From this point the Piazza 
Vittorio Emanuele may be easily reached. 

The south-western gate of the town, the Porta Eburnea, 
is reached from the Piazza Vittoria Emanuele by turning 
down the broad stairway to the north of the Bank of Italy. 
At the bottom we turn to the left for a few yards, and then 
to the right down the Via Cesare Caporali. Passing to the 
left of the little Church of Sant' Angelo d' Eburnea down 
the Via Bruschi, we come to the ancient gateway of the 
Porta Eburnea. It has a mediaeval battlement over the 
arch, and surrounded as it is by picturesque streets, it forms 
one of the most interesting parts of the town. On S. John's 
day it was the custom for the men of this gate to have a fine 
procession ; they were joined by the priors and the students 
from the Sapienza, and all went with torches to the church 
— probably the Duomo. After dinner the men recited the 
story of the Prophet Jonah, and went dancing through 
the city. 

If we pass under the arch and turn sharply to the right 
and go down the staircase called the Via Paradiso we reach 
the modern Porta Eburnea. Outside this gate a pathway 
leads along the western side of the city. It is a lovely 
walk, having the walls of the ancient, and the houses of the 



28 PERUGIA 

modern city rising steeply on one side, while on the other 
gardens and vineyards cover the slopes which fall steeply 
into the valley below. The city may be re-entered by the 
Porta Susanna. 

The western gate of the town, the Porta Susanna, is 
reached by the Via dei Priori, which leaves the Corso by an 
archway under the Palazzo Pubblico ; the street runs steeply 
and directly down to the Porta Susanna. In passing down 
the Via dei Priori there will be observed to the left an arch- 
way leading into the Via della Cupa ; a few yards down this 
last-named street the Via Deliziosa opens to the right. A 
gateway at No. 5 leads to the house of Perugino, with an 
inscription at the foot of the staircase. 

The eastern side of the town and the walls supporting the 
Piazza del Sopramuro may be seen by entering a gateway 
at No. 6 Via del Ospedale which is generally open. A few 
steps into the garden enables the visitor to see the arches and 
walling, which follow roughly the lines of the ancient Etruscan 
walls. 

The mediaeval life of Perugia centred round the Piazza di 
San Lorenzo and the Piazza del Sopramuro. 

If we stand on the steps of the Duomo leading up to the 
small door in its southern wall and look straight towards the 
Corso we shall have close to our right hand the bronze statue 
of Pope Julius III. (1550-1555) who was thus honoured in 
return for the concessions granted in mitigation of the heavy 
taxes imposed by Paul III. upon the city. Further to our 
right is a loggia built by Braccio Fortebraccio (1416-1424). 
Beyond this are the buildings of the Canonica. Turning at 
right angles and still looking to the right we see the archi- 
vescovile. The building may be recognised by its modern 
frescoes in monochrome representing the four cardinal 
virtues. Turning again at right angles there is straight 
in front of our standpoint the Palazzo Pubblico, containing 
the Library, the Picture Gallery, and the public offices of 
the town. 

Keeping to the same standpoint at the southern door of the 
Cathedral and turning to the left, there is close to us. built on 



THE GATEWAYS AND THE WALLS 29 

the wall of the Duomo, the pulpit from which the great 
preachers of the fifteenth century spoke to the crowds in 
the piazza. 

Looking still to the left, the building at the south-eastern 
corner of the piazza, opposite to the Palazzo Pubblico, was 
the old hall of the Notaries ; according to tradition Perugino 
once used part of this building as his workshop. 

In the open space of the Piazza di S. Lorenzo is the public 
fountain. The piazza was the scene of nearly all the great 
public acts and events which make up the history of the town. 
It was here, for instance, that she realised her territorial 
greatness. On the day of S. Ercolano the subject towns 
paid their tribute. Some sent " palii," pieces of cloth or silk, 
others a richly caparisoned horse. This ceremony is men- 
tioned in 1314, and in 1381 it is recorded that nineteen lands 
and cities offered tribute. 

The learned life of the town was centred in the Piazza 
Supramuro. On the eastern side of the open space which 
is now used for the market, there are the buildings formerly 
occupied by the Captain of the People and by the University; 
they date from the years 1472 and 1483 respectively. The 
walls on which the piazza rests on its eastern sides are men- 
tioned as early as in 1275. 

The principal points of interest in Perugia may be 
visited in the following way:— 

1. Starting from the Arco di Agosto and going in a north- 
westerly direction — the Corso Garibaldi leads to S. Agostino 
S. Angelo, the Porta S. Angelo, and beyond the gate to S. 
Francesco-al- Monte. The Museum is in this quarter and 
may be reached by turning to the left out of the Corso Gari- 
baldi, or more directly by the Via Appia. 

2. Starting from the Duomo in a north-easterly direction 
along the Via Bontempi we pass near the chapel part of the 
old monastery of S. Severo, where the fresco of Raphael is 
preserved. At the bottom of the hill is the Church of Sta. 
Maria Nuova. 

3. Leaving the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele or the Piazza del 
Sopramuro and going in a south-easterly direction along 



3 o PERUGIA 

the Corso Cavour in the direction of the Porta S. Pietro we 
pass the churches of S. Ercolano, S. Domenico, S. Pietro 
dei Cassinesi, and beyond the gate the interesting Church 
of S. Costanzo. 

4. Turning out of the Corso Vannucci (the main street) by 
an archway under the Palazzo Pubblico and going down the 
Via dei Priori to the west side of the town we reach the 
oratory of S. Bernardino and the Church of S. Francesco 
del Prato. 

ETRUSCAN PERUGIA 

General Note upon the Characteristics of the 
Etruscan People and their Art 

The cities of Tuscany and Umbria have many records 
in their streets and museums of an ancient civilisation 
dating far back to a remote period before the existence 
of the Romans, before the Greeks had risen from semi- 
barbarism, before the kings of Israel had established their 
kingdom. This civilisation was that of the Etruscans, or 
the Rasena?, as they called themselves, a powerful, active, 
and able race of people who settled in Central Italy pro- 
bably in the ninth or tenth century B.C. Their origin is 
unknown, but the fact that many of their habits and customs 
are similar to those of Oriental nations gives some colour to 
the tradition that they came from the East. They were 
doubtless a mixed race, and at an early period they showed 
in their arts a strongly sympathetic disposition towards 
Hellenic culture. 

From whatever part of Europe they may have sprung, 
the point of importance for the traveller is the fact that this 
race left the stamp of its powerful individuality upon 
the country, so that throughout Italian history the Tuscans 
have been distinguished for their pre-eminent ability, 
both as thinkers and as artists. The tombs and the 
Etruscan collections in Umbria represent a long period of 
history. They are the products of a civilisation extending 
over some eight or nine hundred years. 



ETRUSCAN PERUGIA 31 

Etruscan chronology is said to date back to the beginning 
of the tenth century B.C., and the earliest remains, probably 
of the ninth century, show that at that time they were a 
semi-barbarous race, capable of producing only primitive 
utensils for the simplest wants. The country was fertile, the 
people were able and industrious, and coming in contact at 
an early period with the products of Hellenic civilisation, 
they showed an extraordinary readiness in adapting them- 
selves to its influence. This capacity of the Etruscans of 
assimilating the higher culture of Greece is the most 
significant characteristic of the race. 

In the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. the inhabitants of 
Etruria were the most powerful of all the tribes in the 
peninsula. In 450 B.C. they were masters of almost the 
whole of Central and Northern Italy ; they had imposed 
their suzerainty upon Latium, and occupied Campania, while 
upon the Adriatic and Mediterranean seas their fleet was 
the terror of other maritime nations. 

The Etruscans were united, it is believed, in a confederacy 
of twelve cities, each of which was an independent state, 
with the right, not only of self-government, but of making 
war and peace on its own account. No list of the twelve 
cities has been preserved, but those which are generally con- 
sidered to have been the most important are Tarquinii (now 
Corneto), Veii (eleven miles from Rome), Volsinii (now 
Bolsena), Clusium (now Chiusi), Volaterrae (Volterra), Vetu- 
lonia (on the coast near Telamone), Perusia (Perugia), 
Cortona, Arretium (Arezzo). 

There were other towns, such as Fiesole, Pisa, Caere (now 
Cervetri), and Volci (now Vulci), which were certainly at 
one time also independent states. 

The middle of the fifth century B.C. marks the beginning 
of the decline in power of the Etruscan confederacy. The 
Samnites took Capua in 424 B.C. The Romans gained 
their first victory in 426, and, two years later, Fidenae fell into 
their hands. 

The Gauls invaded Northern Italy in the fourth century, 
and the power of the Etruscans received a severe blow from 



32 PERUGIA 

the capture of Veii in 396 B.C. by the Romans. In the course 
of the next hundred years, the central part of the kingdom 
fell under the Roman yoke, and the defeat at Sentinum in 
295 B.C. marks the end of the Etruscan supremacy. 

Under the influence of the Etruscans, Rome came in 
contact with the culture of Greece, for the Latin race, 
while it mastered Etruria, adopted the habits, the laws, and 
the arts of the conquered people. A greater glory was 
added to the Etruscans by becoming the instructors of the 
still greater nation of the Romans. The one fact above 
others which strikes us with regard to this people, is that 
nothing of what they wrote has come down to us except 
inscriptions, and these inscriptions, although perfectly 
legible, are almost entirely unintelligible. 

Our knowledge, therefore, about their religion, their 
government, and their arts is based upon no documents ; 
there are no certain dates, and no names. On the other 
hand, the genius of the Etruscan artists lay in the direction 
of realistic portraiture, so that we have a large number of 
lifelike images of the people as they lived. 

Besides this, there have been preserved in the tombs 
many of the homely things that they used in their daily 
lives, their weapons and ornaments, their pots and vases, 
so that we seem to have an intimate and somewhat familiar 
acquaintance with people about whom in all important 
matters we know nothing. 

We know how they dressed their hair, what kind of tongs 
and pins they used, how they slept and how they ate ; but 
we know little of their system of government, and almost 
nothing of their beliefs and aspirations. 

Religion. — In the judgment of antiquity the Etruscans 
were considered the most religious people among the nations 
of the West, but we can learn nothing directly of the nature 
of that religion. 

Judging from the sepulchral furniture, and from the cere- 
monies connected with the committing of the dead to their 
final resting-place, it would seem that at some stage of their 
development the Etruscans had been ancestor worship- 



ETRUSCAN PERUGIA 33 

pers. Much importance was attached to the safe preserva- 
tion of the ashes or of the bodies of the dead, for both burial 
and burning were used by the Etruscans. Food was placed 
in the tombs, and sacrifices were offered, and we are told . 
that it was the custom at one time for relations to pass the 
night in the sepulchres, a custom commonly practised by 
those who believed that the powers of the dead might be 
by such means transmitted to the living. 

Whatever may have been the nature of this primitive 
belief, it is clear that the Etruscan religion became strongly 
tinged with Hellenic elements, although always preserving 
certain distinctive and peculiar features. It is probable 
that the people continued to follow the old burial customs, 
and the fashion of furnishing the tomb, long after changes 
in belief had been adopted which destroyed the significance 
of the early practices. 

The doctrine of the veiled deities was purely Etruscan, 
foreign both to the Greeks and the Romans. The twelve 
hidden gods, " Dii involuti," were the supreme powers — 
mysterious, inscrutable, never to be seen, and never re- 
presented. Below them in the divine hierarchy were the 
gods who executed the will of the superiors in so far as it 
related to mortals. Of these, the three principal were Tinia, 
corresponding to Jupiter, Cupra to Juno, and Menevra to 
Minerva. Temples were raised in every city, it is said, to 
each of these three deities. 

The doctrine of genii, which was adopted and developed 
by the Romans, is another feature of the Etruscan religion. 
A large number of attendant spirits, demons, fates, and 
furies watch over human beings, announce their approach- 
ing end, and go with the soul on its last journey. They 
appear continually in the paintings and sculptures of the 
tombs, and form an interesting study in themselves. 

Civil and ecclesiastical authority in Etruria was in 
the hands of an all-powerful hierarchy; the princes or 
military chiefs were themselves priests skilled in divination, 
and the science of the worship of the gods was the here- 
ditary possession of the Lucumones, a race of priestly 



34 PERUGIA 

nobles. Great attention was paid to divination by 

sacrifice, by the flight of birds, and by lightning, and the 
Etruscan Haruspices, or augurs, were called to Rome to inter- 
pret abnormal portents by the Romans who adopted many of 
the practices of divination, but never mastered the science. 

The chief point of interest in the religion of the Etruscans 
is their belief in an after life. 

The tombs are furnished with armour, weapons, orna- 
ments, vessels for eating and drinking, as though the ghost 
continued to enjoy the material pleasures of this life. The 
bliss of the dead is pictured as the enjoyment of an eternal 
banquet, and the place of Shades is a place of feasting and 
revelry. At the same time, Death was not looked upon 
philosophically as the natural end or as the kindly visitant. 
All men are cut off violently by the hand of fate, in the 
midst of life. A hideous demon, the Charun of the Etrus- 
cans, strikes down the living with his hammer, or a Fury, as 
an ugly hag, touches the wrist of the victim and deprives 
him of life. Relations mourn and lament over the dead 
body, while the soul sets out on its uneasy journey to the 
underworld, alone, except for the fearful demon companions. 

Art. — The Etruscans were able and skilful workmen, but 
they were not richly gifted as artists. They imitated the 
works imported from Greece, yet their development was 
not organic. Each locality passed through various phases, 
but not in chronological sequence. In some cases we find 
an archaic and more primitive style succeeding a freer and 
more developed manner of representation. Abrupt changes 
abound, and no unification of styles took place until the final 
period of Etruscan art in the third century B.C. 

A certain industrial and commercial quality stamps the 
work of this people, and their sculptures, paintings, and 
jewellery are lacking in taste and refinement. 

They had little power of idealisation, and seem to have 
tried to represent things as they saw them, rather than to 
search for ideal types. On the other hand, they had a cer- 
tain instinct for portraiture, and succeeded in impressing 
a vivid and lifelike quality upon their work. 



ETRUSCAN PERUGIA 35 

Architecture. — Little remains now of the work done by 
Etruscan builders. Fragments of walls and portions of gate- 
ways are to be found in several Umbrian cities, notably in 
Perugia. The masonry consists of large irregular blocks 
laid in horizontal courses without cement. It is supposed 
that the temples must have closely resembled the Doric 
style. The pediments were loaded with sculpture, and frag- 
ments of the statues used for this purpose are to be found in 
several of the Etruscan collections. The sculptures appear 
as a rule to have illustrated the deeds of the particular deities 
who were worshipped in the sanctuary. 

Tombs. — The Etruscans practised both incineration and 
burial, and the tombs in which the ashes or bodies of the 
dead were preserved were, generally speaking, of three kinds. 

1. The earliest form of tomb was that of a well, the 
ashes being stored in a vessel at the bottom, and covered 
with a large stone. Sometimes this vessel was in the form 
of a little hut of clay or bronze ; elsewhere it took the form of 
a vase with a symbolical bird upon the lid representing the 
spirit. In some districts the cinerary vase has a mask, 
taken from the face of the dead, attached to it, and at a later 
period this mask was replaced by a rough portrait head, 
which formed the lid. Most of the black ware called " Buc- 
chero," and the primitive pottery with geometrical designs 
come from the well tombs. The sepulchres of a later date 
which can be visited by the traveller in Umbria are roughly 
of two sorts : — 

2. Those like the tombs of the Necropolis of Orvieto, 
which are built of massive blocks of stone, and grouped 
together so that they resemble a street of low buildings. 
Each house consists of one or two chambers, within which 
the bodies of the dead were placed upon stone benches. 

3. Tombs, such as those in the neighbourhoods of Perugia, 
Orvieto, and Chiusi, which are more in the nature of caves 
hollowed from the rocks in the hillside. 

These cave-tombs are, as a rule, cut out of the natural 
rock in imitation of buildings. The roofs are made to look 
as if the tomb were covered with slabs of stone, and other 



36 PERUGIA 

architectural decorations, such as cornices and doorways, are 
added to resemble masonry. The walls of such sepulchres 
are frequently covered with paintings, and the dead are 
either laid upon benches, or their ashes are stored in stone 
chests or sarcophagi. 

THE MUSEUM OF THE UNIVERSITY 

The museum has a large Etruscan collection derived 
from the tombs of the neighbourhood, and a smaller mediae- 
val collection, obtained chiefly from the suppressed con- 
vents and churches of the district. 

At the top of the first flight of stairs, on the landing, are 
several sarcophagi and " cippi " belonging to Roman times. 
A large marble sarcophagus has on the end a fine relief of a 
grifiin. This composite animal, with the head and wings of 
an eagle and the body of a lion, is a common figure in 
Etruscan sculpture. Griffins were placed upon urns and 
sarcophagi and at the doorways of tombs as guardians or 
as symbols of vigilance. 

On this landing are also several stone monuments or 
" cippi," some with Roman inscriptions. They were used 
both by the Etruscans and Romans to mark the place of 
tombs and of boundaries. 

On the end of the balustrade is a seated sphinx of Etrus- 
can workmanship. This animal has the body of a lion 
with wings, and the head and bust of a woman. Its form 
was borrowed from Oriental art, and, like the griffin, it was 
placed as a guardian of the sepulchre. At the top of the 
stairs is a corridor, containing a collection of cinerary urns 
or chests found in or near Perugia. 

The numbers referred to are marked in black figures 
upon the sides of the objects. 

The bodies of the dead were burned, as a rule, in this 
district, and the ashes were placed in a chest and preserved 
in an underground tomb, surrounded by various articles 
provided for the spirits, such as domestic utensils, weapons, 
and ornaments. 



THE MUSEUM 37 

The lid of the chest consists of a portrait figure of the 
dead person, lying upon a bed, or reclining at a banquet ; 
and upon the chest itself are reliefs which may be divided 
into two classes : — 

1. Scenes of the farewell of the dying, of funeral and 
sacrificial processions, and of the journey of the soul to the 
underworld. 

2. Mythological scenes taken from the heroic traditions 
of Greece. This class includes, at least, three-fourths of the 
reliefs, all belonging to the third and second century B.C. 
The best examples in this museum are collected in Room III. 

In the corridor, and immediately facing the stairs, there 
are several chests, in the shape of a temple, with no recum- 
bent figures upon the lid. No. 123 has a relief of the Head 
of Medusa. These images occur frequently upon the chests 
and in the tombs. It was supposed that they had power to 
protect the sepulchre against those who might seek to dis- 
turb it. According to the most popular version of the Greek 
legend, Medusa was one of the Gorgons, three sisters who 
lived on the edge of the land of darkness. She alone of the 
sisters was beautiful and mortal, but having by her pre- 
sumption offended the goddess Athene, she was made more 
terrible than her sisters, and her hair was turned into ser- 
pents. Perseus, with the help of the goddess, dared to 
enter the place of eternal twilight, and carried off the head 
of Medusa as a trophy. Athene fastened this head to her 
breastplate, and used it as an invincible weapon against her 
enemies, for the head had the miraculous power of turning 
those who looked on it to stone. 

The association of Medusa with the place of night, and 
the use of her head as a talisman, and as a powerful weapon 
against all foes, accounts for the presence of these images 
in the tombs. In early times the heads of Medusa were 
hideous and frightful, but at a later date they came to be 
represented with a calm expression and beautiful features. 
Examples of the early and late type may be seen in this 
museum. 

Turning the corner of the corridor, No. 157, against the 



38 PERUGIA 

right wall, should be noted for its spirited and vigorous 
design of a man riding upon a sea monster, representing the 
journey of the soul to the underworld. 

No. 179 is a representation of the Sacrifice of Iphigenia ; 
other examples of the same subject will be found in 
Room III. 

No. 279, on the left, a little farther on, has the figure of a 
young woman leaning upon her elbow in an easy and grace- 
ful position. Underneath is her name, THANIA CAFSINIA 
VOLUMNI. 

Many of the urns have representations of marine deities, 
composite figures with human heads and tails like that of a 
whale. The human part may be either male or female, and 
they personify the terrors and dangers which await the 
traveller by sea. A trident, rudder, or oar is given to them 
as an attribute to signify dominion over the sea, and they 
are frequently shown fighting with mortals and destroy- 
ing them. The wealth of the Etruscans depended greatly 
upon their maritime commerce, and it was natural that 
much importance should be attached to the worship and 
propitiation of marine deities. 

Continuing along the corridor, and passing the door of 
entrance to the other rooms of the museum, to the right are 
two coffins with well-preserved skeletons, showing that 
although the burning of the dead was most commonly prac- 
tised, it was not universal. The first skeleton, now enclosed 
in a wooden box, has a pair of large gold earrings lying 
beside it. The second has a number of articles for the toilet. 
The spirit of the dead dwelt in the tomb as a person in a 
house, and was provided with a mirror, a strigil for use after 
the bath, and various pots for ointments and other cosmetics. 
At the end of the corridor are a number of fragments of 
mediaeval sculpture, which can be reached from the last of 
the inner rooms and will be described later. The visitor 
should walk back through the corridor to the entrance of 
Room I., used as an office. 



THE MUSEUM 39 

Room II. 

In the centre stands a Roman amphora, found in the sea 
at Sinigaglia, incrusted with lime deposits. 

Case A, on the wall of entrance, has a collection of terra- 
cottas. On the second and third shelves from the top are a 
number of masks from human faces. 

On the third shelf is a terra-cotta head of Medusa, of very 
fine workmanship. The face is of the frightful type, and 
has staring eyes, a protruding tongue, and serpents twisted 
in her hair. 

On the next shelf is a collection of small glass bottles and 
pots, forming part of the furnishing of the tomb. A number 
of terra-cotta feet and hands were perhaps once attached to 
wooden statues which have perished. 

Cases B and C contain examples of the early black 
pottery called "Bucchero," made chiefly in Chiusi and the 
neighbourhood. The best collections of this ware, which 
dates from the seventh century B.C., and may be called the 
national pottery of Etruria, are to be found in the museums 
of Umbrian towns and in Florence. The designs are usually 
in relief, and the general forms show little perception of 
grace or beauty. In some cases the form of the vase is lost 
under the multiplication of figures in relief. The subjects 
chosen are rarely mythological, and consist chiefly of rows 
of animals, symbols of the various deities, with occasional 
instances of funeral processions and banquets. It is sup- 
posed that this ware belongs to a period when the strict and 
priestly character of the Etruscan religion did not permit 
any representation of the divine mysteries ; and that it was 
only after long contact with the freer and more fanciful 
creed of the Greeks, that the people of Etruria began to 
depict the histories of their deities. 

On the fourth shelf of Cases B and C are several trays in 
this black ware, holding various small pots. They are com- 
monly called " Focolari," and they seem to have been used 
as toilet-stands generally, but in some cases they were 



40 PERUGIA 

placed above hot ashes, for the purpose of keeping the 
vessels inside them warm at the funeral feast. 



Room III. 

Contains the best preserved examples of cinerary 
chests. The figures upon the lids recline upon pillows as 
at a banquet. Sometimes the forms are only roughly 
blocked out, as though the artist had not cared or had not 
been paid to bestow attention upon any part except the 
head and the face. In spite of the rough unfinished work- 
manship there is an extraordinary look of vitality about 
many of these portraits. 

The young, the middle-aged, and the elderly are presented 
just as they were in life, neither idealised nor ennobled, and 
in the full enjoyment of their pleasures. It is noticeable 
that there are no effigies of children, and this absence of all 
reference to the " little dead " suggests a comparison with 
the Christian sepulchres of the Catacombs, where the num- 
ber of inscriptions to children immediately attracts attention. 
Both the women and the men on the lids of the chests wear 
large and clumsy necklaces to which some amulet or charm 
was generally attached. Great attention was paid to the 
coiffure of both sexes, and the head-dresses were often ela- 
borate. A general survey of the reliefs upon the chests, 
shows that the subjects are chiefly taken from the Iliad 
and the Odyssey, and that with few exceptions they illus- 
trate the tragedy of death. Scenes of massacre, murder, 
sacrifice, and combat are the most frequent ; and if the 
actual moment of death is not chosen, a Fury or some other 
messenger of the lower world is introduced to show that 
sooner or later the fatal destiny will be accomplished. 

The men and women represented upon the lids, lying in 
comfortable and easy attitudes on their pillows, seem to have 
no obvious connection with the gloomy and tragic scenes 
below. Have they passed to another world where they are 
free from fate and no longer dogged by death? Is this 
supposed to be a picture of their state of bliss in another 



THE MUSEUM 41 

existence? If so, then the upper and lower parts of the 
chests present a striking contrast between the turmoil and 
dangers of the life of mortals, and the imperturbable calm 
of the existence of the Shades. 

Beginning with the chests ranged on the shelves along 
the wall of entrance. Upper shelf : No. 1 is in the form of 
a temple. Upon the pediment is the head of Medusa, 
and on the sides of the building is a scene from the 
Heroic Myths, relating to the catastrophe which nearly 
ended the life of Paris of Troy. The birth of Paris was 
accompanied by a portent which was considered ominous 
for the welfare of the city ; so the infant was exposed by his 
parents, but was saved by shepherds and brought up in 
rural fashion. In course of time it happened that the ser- 
vants of King Priam, the father of Paris, were sent into the 
country to capture a bull for the sacrifices. They carried 
off one from the herd belonging to Paris, and were followed 
by the hero into the city, where he strove with his brothers. 
One of the brothers drew his sword to slay the countryman, 
but Paris fled to the altar, and there Kassandra, his sister, 
the prophetess, endowed with knowledge of hidden things 
by Apollo, made him known to his relations. This subject 
occurs again on Nos. 24 and 29. It is an exception to the 
usual themes, which either lead up to or describe some 
tragic end, but at the same time it is an illustration of 
the belief that the fate of a man is in the power of the 
gods. 

No. 2 (also No. 18). The Sacrifice of Iphigenia. The 
maiden is carried in the arms of a warrior to the altar, where 
the priestess stands ready for the sacrifice. King Agamem- 
non, commander of the army in the expedition against Troy, 
impiously killed a beautiful stag sacred to Artemis, and then 
boasted of his skill as a hunter. Terrible misfortunes im- 
mediately followed. The Greek fleet was becalmed, and 
the soothsayers declared that Artemis could only be ap- 
peased when Agamemnon should sacrifice his daughter 
Iphigenia. Pleased with the submission of the father, 
however, the goddess substituted a white doe for the 



42 PERUGIA 

maiden. In some of the reliefs the figure of the animal 
is introduced at the feet of the priestess. 

It is evident that the Etruscans believed that the un- 
pardonable sin in mortals was presumption. Those who 
thought themselves, or even wished to be like gods were 
immediately punished. Representations of the Sacrifice of 
Iphigenia are only found upon the tombs of women, and 
there may perhaps have been some allusion intended to 
the practice of human sacrifice, continued among the 
Etruscans long after it had been abandoned by the Greeks. 
Young maidens were offered upon the altar of Cupra or 
Juno, and in the collection of the Louvre there is a panel 
painting with a realistic presentment of such a sacrifice. 

No. 3. The portrait figure upon the lid holds a long- 
handled feather fan. On the chest is the soul figured 
as a young man about to start upon the journey to the 
underworld. He gives his sword and shield to his ser- 
vant, who holds his horse in readiness. The figure of a 
man upon horseback, or of the horse alone, is often used 
to express the journey of the dead. Sometimes the ser- 
vant in attendance has a sack, to show that the voyage is a 
long one. 

No. 4. Pollux binding Amykos, King of Bithynia, to 
a tree, is another example of the punishment meted by the 
immortals to presumptuous mortals. The band of Greek 
heroes who sailed in the ship Argo, for the purpose of 
finding the Golden Fleece, landed in a country where the 
king, Amykos, was a formidable boxer, and in a vainglorious 
spirit compelled those who landed to contend with him. 
His challenge was accepted by Pollux, who overcame and 
killed him. The two brothers, Kastor and Pollux, were 
favourite subjects for representation upon vases, chests, 
and mirrors, possibly because they were the protectors of 
travellers by sea, and had power over wind and waves. 

No. 5 is an incident from the siege of Troy. Achilles, 
the Greek hero, pursues Troilus, the son of Priam, who 
falls from his horse and is killed at the gate of Troy. The 
Greeks had attempted to take the city by storm without 



THE MUSEUM 43 

success, and this death of the young Trojan, who was over- 
taken by the swift-footed Achilles, was the first victorious 
incident. Nos. 10 and 16 are similar. 

No. 6. A combat between men and a sea monster. 
No. 15, a somewhat similar subject, may represent Scylla 
destroying the companions of Ulysses. The snake-like 
tails of the monster are wound round the bodies of her 
victims. On the end of the chest is the Etruscan Charun 
leaning on an oar, ready to accompany the dead to the 
lower world. The usual attribute given to Charun is a 
hammer or mallet, with which he deals the fatal blow. He 
is often introduced in scenes of slaughter and at death-bed 
farewells. 

No. 8. A beautiful polychrome head of Medusa, sur- 
rounded by green leaves. The hair might be described 
as wine-coloured. 

No. 9. Traces of colour still remain upon the figure on 
the lid. In Etruscan paintings men are generally coloured 
a strong brownish red, and the women white. This chest 
has a bas-relief of a lion with its paws crossed. The same 
square broad outlines are characteristic of the animals as 
they are figured in Romanesque art. 

No. 11, similar to Nos. 17 and 25, represents a combat 
between two warriors. 

No. 12. The relief represents a Boar Hunt, a form of 
sport to which the Etruscans were much addicted. The 
special circumstance is no doubt the death of the Kalydonian 
boar. Meleager, Prince of Kalydon, succeeded in killing a 
great boar which Artemis had sent as a punishment to 
devastate the country. The possession of the skin of the 
animal led to a quarrel between Meleager and his uncles, 
resulting in their death. Meleager's mother, who knew the 
will of the Fates, and held the talisman of her son's life, 
brought about his death in revenge for the slaughter of her 
brothers. 

No. 13. The relief represents a lady at her toilet ; beside 
her stand an attendant and a musician. 

No. 19. On the lid is the squat figure of a middle-aged 



44 PERUGIA 

man, whose profession may have been that of the priest or 
jurist, who appears on the chest below with a roll in his hand. 

No. 23. A spirited scene of the siege of Thebes by 
the seven heroes of Argos. The two Theban brothers, 
Eteokles and Polyneikes, who were joint-rulers of the 
kingdom, fell into dispute. Eteokles succeeded in driving 
out his brother, who gathered together an army, and six 
other heroes who agreed to help him to regain his lost 
kingdom. Prophets and soothsayers warned them in vain 
that they were acting impiously, for the gods were opposed 
to an expedition led by one brother against another, and 
against his native city. The siege ended in a complete 
defeat of the Argive army, and all the leaders were slain. 
In the relief we see the soldiers trying to scale the walls, 
while the Thebans hurl down stones upon them. The 
figure of Capaneus is often introduced into the scene as 
he fell from the ladder, struck by a thunderbolt from Zeus 
in punishment of his impiety. 

No. 25 is a combat between two warriors who may 
be the Theban brothers, Eteokles and Polyneikes. The 
unhappy brothers during the siege engaged in single 
combat, and both were slain. This double tragedy and 
mutual slaughter is a favourite subject among Etruscan 
sculptures, and the figures of Fates and Furies are often 
introduced standing beside each of the dying men. 

Ranged along the floor are a number of small terra- 
cotta chests, many of them having identical reliefs cast 
from the same mould. The combat and death of heroes, 
or symbolical figures of griffins and sea monsters, the 
guardians and messengers of the underworld, are the 
principal subjects illustrated. The figures upon the lids 
are lying upon couches wrapped in large cloaks. The 
heads are more or less individualised as portraits, and no 
doubt the lids were especially commissioned and fitted on 
to the ready-made chests. There is no suggestion in these 
figures of the Christian conception of the sleep of the dead, 
or of the uninhabited body ; they are like living people in 
the enjoyment of comfortable repose. 



THE MUSEUM 45 

In the centre of the room are two fine stone monuments 
or "cippi," covered with figures of dancing women in 
delicate relief, and of a primitive style. They should be 
compared with the large sarcophagus, and the round cippus 
of grey travertine in Room VI. The long and narrow 
proportions of the figures, the drawing of both hands and 
of both feet together in profile, are easily distinguishable feat- 
ures, and are characteristics of the archaic art of the Greeks. 

Room IV. 

Contains a collection of bronzes. The Etruscans were 
not rich in metals, and for a long period had nothing except 
bronze ; but they became renowned throughout the 
ancient world for their skilled workmanship in this 
material, and their lamps, candelabra, weapons, vessels, 
and statues were exported to many lands. 

In the middle of the room is a large sacrificial vessel, and 
on either side the fragments of two curule chairs. 

In Case A, against the entrance wall, are helmets, spears, 
arrow-heads, and other weapons, which formed part of the 
sepulchral furniture of the tombs, the greatest amount of 
armour being found in the oldest sepulchres. 

Upon the lower shelves are pins, bracelets, strigils, 
domestic utensils, such as keys, ladles, strainers ; also a 
number of makers' stamps for impressing their marks upon 
the terra-cotta moulds. 

In Case B there is a bronze stand for the game of 
Cottabos. This game was in great favour with the Greeks 
as well as with the Etruscans ; so much so that at one 
time rooms were built in Sicily especially for the pastime. 
There were variants in the manner of playing, but the 
principal object was to throw the contents of a wine cup, 
all at once and without spilling any, against the metal plate 
or basin of the Cottabos so that it should produce a clear 
metallic sound. Originally the game was played as an 
augury of love. As the lover threw the wine he pronounced 
the name of his mistress, and she was judged to be favour- 



46 PERUGIA 

able to him in proportion to the clearness of the sound 
produced. 

In the same case are a number of forked instruments with 
long claws used in the sacrificial services. 

On the lower shelves is a large collection of fibulae, the 
Etruscan equivalent of the modern safety-pin, some of which 
are both fanciful and elegant. The fashion of dress at one 
period apparently involved the use of a large number of 
these pins, no fewer than twenty having been found in one 
sarcophagus. 

Case D has a number of bronze lamps of peculiar shape, 
such as boats, animal heads, and a human foot in a boot. 
They were probably votive offerings, the shapes chosen 
having a symbolical significance. 

In Case E there are a number of dice, which were found 
in the tombs both of men and women. The Etruscan 
ancestors of the Perugians were as much addicted to games 
of chance as their mediaeval descendants, who were so con- 
tinually upbraided for this vice by the mendicant preachers. 

Room V. 

Vases. — This is not a large or noteworthy collection, but it 
contains interesting specimens of both early and late work- 
manship. The Etruscans did not succeed in the difficult task 
of vase painting as they did in modelling in terra-cotta. They 
followed the progressive changes of style in Greek pottery, 
but they never attained to the same artistic excellence. 

Examples of the earliest pottery, with geometrical 
patterns drawn in black upon the uncoloured clay, are to 
be seen upon the upper shelves of Case C. They have been 
discovered chiefly in the oldest tombs, and similar designs 
to these are to be found on the pottery of most semi- 
civilised races. (See the Salle des origines comparees, in 
the Louvre.) 

Good examples of a later but still archaic style are in 
Cases B and C. 

The designs are in black upon a red ground, and the 



THE MUSEUM 47 

figures both of men and animals are hard, rigid, and gene- 
rally of exaggerated proportions. The muscles of the figures 
and the folds of the drapery are marked by white incised 
lines. A good example of this style is No. 17, in Case B, 
third shelf from the top, which shows the unusually tall and 
slender figure of a man standing beside his horse. No. 9, in 
Case C, second shelf from the top, has a similar design. 

There are several examples of the still later and more 
perfect style, having red designs upon black. The back- 
ground is painted black, the figures being left the natural 
reddish-yellow of the clay, and details are marked with 
black or brown lines. In the centre of the room is a 
beautiful vase, No. 21, with finely-proportioned figures, and 
probably of Greek workmanship. 

Room VI. 

Contains some of the most important monuments of the 
collection. Opposite to the entrance door is a realistic and 
striking group of statuary, about life size. A man of 
more than middle age lies upon a couch, holding a patera ; 
and at his feet sits his Fate, a little old woman with wings 
upon her shoulders. With her large hooked nose, pointed 
chin, and wrinkled brow, she resembles the usual personifi- 
cations of Charun. Her expression is not malevolent as she 
lays her hand upon the man's wrist and deprives him of 
life. The victim's expression of imperturbable well-being 
would lead one to suppose that he was either unconscious 
of the fatal touch or indifferent to its consequences, re- 
garding the future without fear or anxiety. Both figures are 
hollow, and the heads are removable. 

On a shelf between the windows are two finely-finished 
terra-cotta chests. Upon one there is a Medusa head of 
the frightful type between two fantastic griffins. 

On the lid of the other chest is a spirited group of a 
man and woman reclining upon a couch in animated and 
smiling converse. 

To the right of the entrance, beside the window, is a large 



48 PERUGIA 

circular monument, surmounted by a cone-shaped pillar. 

The reliefs represent a deathbed scene and the procession 
of the mourners at the funeral. The style of the work is 
archaic and rigid. The great stone sarcophagus against the 
wall of entrance should be compared with this monument, as 
the workmanship also speaks to a period rude and primi- 
tive in its artistic development. 

According to some authorities the scene represents a funeral 
procession with captives and animals led to sacrifice, and on 
the ends, are the mourners seated at the banquet. According 
to others the relief illustrates the return of conquerors from a 
foray, bringing the vanquished in chains, followed by their 
women, and animals laden with booty. Under the window 
is a case with some fine specimens of bronze mirrors. 

There are no incised mirrors of a very early or archaic 
period, and the subjects chosen for illustration are almost 
entirely mythological, dealing chiefly with the successful 
exploits of heroes, and with their victorious adventures 
in love or war. A tracing of one of the finest mirrors hangs 
upon the wall, and represents Helen as a young girl leaning 
upon her father's knee ; beside her are the brothers Kastor 
and Pollux, who were successful in rescuing their sister from 
Theseus. The artist has apparently made a blunder in in- 
scribing the name of Laomedon beside the father's head. 

Another mirror shows Hercules victorious over Cerberus, 
and crowned with laurel by a goddess. 

In this room is a stone, the Tabulae Perusinse, with the 
longest known inscription in the Etruscan character. It 
was discovered in 1822 near Perugia, and so far has defied 
all attempts at interpretation. It has been tested by Greek, 
Latin, Hebrew, Erse, and Armenian, and described variously 
as an account of a feast, as a contract relating to boundaries, 
and as an ordinance for religious rites. This museum is rich 
in inscriptions, and many of them have been placed upon the 
walls of the corridor. 

The inscriptions in the Etruscan character which have 
been deciphered are chiefly of a formal nature, such as or- 
dinances relating to religious rites, or contracts for the 



THE MUSEUM 49 

ownership of land, and they add comparatively little to 
our knowledge of the civilisation of this people. 

In a small case on the wall of exit to the next room are 
some gold ornaments, the most noticeable being an earring 
of unusual size and weight. It is said to be of the third or 
second century B.C., a period when taste in such matters had 
suffered,' a degradation, and more value was attached to size 
and costliness than to artistic merit. 

Above the case are two bronze statuettes, probably votive 
offerings. The quaint long figure represents Hygeia, 
goddess of health, and the little figure at the side is the 
goddess of convalescence. 

Room VII. 

Has a. miscellaneous collection of later Etruscan and 
Roman work, and a case of antiquities from Cyprus. 

In Rooms VIII. and IX. are the Etruscan collections 
made by Count Guardabassi from various parts of Italy. 

Amongst the contents of Case H against the wall of 
entrance is a beautiful mirror of bronze with the figure of 
Bacchus riding upon a panther, in high relief. 

The young slender god sits with ease and grace upon the 
beast, which seems the very embodiment of the freedom of 
the forest. The artist has brought before us the spiritual 
form of the Vine born of the lightning and of the dew. We 
have an image of the heat and light of the sun, of the cool- 
ness of fresh leaves, of exhilaration and of swift movement. 

Case L has a fine collection of jewellery. The love of 
jewellery for adornment was a characteristic of the race, but 
it is to be doubted whether any of the works of high artistic 
quality were done by the Etruscans themselves. The rings, 
collars, bracelets, and other ornaments of fine workmanship, 
distinguished for delicacy and beauty, which are found in the 
sarcophagi of the Etruscans were probably Greek impor- 
tations. The native work is characterised by the same 
absence of taste, carelessness of finish, and lack of pro- 
portion as is found in the works of sculpture and painting. 



50 PERUGIA 

In the shelf above the jewellery are some fragments of 
collars or bracelets with interlacing designs such as are 
familiar in Byzantine, Celtic, and Scandinavian work. 

Case O has a number of pins of various kinds, some 
evidently for use in arranging the hair ; also a collection of 
keys and rings, and a bronze balance of the type commonly 
used in Italy to-day. 

Room IX. 

The case in the centre of the room contains a number of 
bronze statuettes of more or less rude workmanship. These 
are believed to be votive offerings, and the undue length 
of the bodies and legs of the figures is the result of the desire 
to make the offering as large in size as possible at the smallest 
cost. The head is generally fairly well represented, but the 
body, arms, and legs consist simply of a thin strip of bronze, in 
some cases hardly rounded. 

Case D has a collection of " Bucchero " ware which should 
be compared with the specimens in Room II. A large vase 
on the lowest shelf has the figure of a bird on the lid. Such 
vases as this have been found in well-tombs containing the 
ashes of the dead, and the figure of the bird is supposed to 
have been a symbol of the spirit. 



THE MEDIEVAL MUSEUM 

The collection of mediaeval antiquities contains no very 
important objects from an artistic point of view, but it has 
several relics connected closely with the religious and 
civil history of Perugia. 

The first room (No. X.), in the case opposite to the door, 
has several ivories, amongst others, a fine pastoral staff of the 
eleventh century formerly in the Church of S. Domenico. It 
is decorated with colour, and in the volute, which has been 
separated from the staff, is the Lamb of God triumphantly 
confronting the great Dragon, which opens its jaws vainly 
attempting to injure. 



THE MUSEUM 51 

In the same case is the sheath of a dagger elaborately 
carved, and two or three caskets with the customary illustra- 
tions from the stories of romance. 

In the case opposite to the window are a number of 
processional crosses. No. 52, in brass, has the four symbols 
of the Evangelists at the corners representing the four quarters 
of the globe into which the gospel was carried. 

No. 47 has a Crucifixion in the centre, with Mary and 
St. John on either side. The other spaces are filled with the 
figures of God the Father, at the top, and St. Peter with 
the keys below. 

Beside the window is a cast of the reliquary made for 
the ring of the Virgin, preserved in the Cathedral. 

Room XI. 

Contains a collection of carved wood from some of the 
churches of Perugia, which are so richly decorated with 
artistic work of this description. 

There are two inlaid panels by Baccio d'Agnolo from 
designs by Perugino, which were submitted as samples for 
the confessional of S. Agostino. In this room also are a 
number of the banners belonging to the town and to the 
communes and lordships of the district. 

The coffin of Bishop Baglioni is covered with a sumptu- 
ously embroidered pall. 

Room XII. 

Has a collection of mediaeval weapons, spears, helmets, &c. 

Against the wall is a group of Madonna and Child, by 
Agostino di Duccio, the artist of the facade of S. Ber- 
nardino. 

In a box with a glass cover are the bones of Fortebraccio 
of Montone, which were brought here from the Church of 
S. Francesco. The portrait of this great military captain of 
mercenaries hangs on the right wall ; on the opposite wall 
is the portrait of Niccolo Piccinino, a follower of Forte- 
braccio, who became master of Perugia in 1442. 



52 PERUGIA 

On a shelf close to the door of entrance to the next room, 
is a ballot-box for the election of the officials of Perugia, 
with the coats of arms of the various arts or guilds on the 
sides. This box was the "borsa," into which the names 
of all those eligible for office were placed. 

Room XIII. 

On the wall are various majolica tiles, and a fine relief 
by Luca della Robbia. The Madonna and Child, sur- 
rounded by angels, are in white, with a blue background,, 
and the circular frame is composed of yellow fruits and 
green leaves. 

In the centre of the room is a glass stand containing two 
beautiful chalices in silver gilt, with precious enamels. 
The smaller one, with eight enamels on the base, is said to* 
have belonged to Pope Benedict XI., who died in the 
Canonica, and was buried in S. Domenico. 

The larger chalice, with chiselled reliefs and beautiful 
enamels of the fourteenth century, is by Cataluccio da Todi ? 
who is also the maker of the paten, with an enamel repre- 
senting the Crucifixion. 

In the case against the wall are a number of iron tongs 
for stamping designs upon cakes, with a collection of casts 
of the various patterns. 

Room XIV. 

In the middle of the room is a case with a collection of 
casts and medals of illustrious Perugians. 

In another case are 150 seals. Amongst these is the seal 
of the town of Perugia of the fourteenth century, with the 
figure of S. Ercolano, his feet resting upon a griffin. Another 
seal of the town, dating from the fifteenth century, has the 
inscription : " Numen divinum guelfum salvet perusinum." 
A seal of Malatesta Baglioni is of the sixteenth century. 

The numismatic collection contains consular, impe- 
rial, Byzantine, municipal, and mediaeval moneys. There 



THE MUSEUM 53 

are a few examples of the rare Quadrant of Fermo, and 
a very rare piece of money of Corrado Trinci, lord of 
Foligno. 

Passing out of the last room, we reach the end of the 
corridor, where are collected fragments of mediaeval sculp- 
ture. On the left wall is a fine relief of the fifteenth 
century, the front of the sarcophagus of Ubaldo Bartolini, 
a famed legist and teacher of Perugia. The master, in hood 
and gown, sits at his desk, in a room filled with scholars. 
Those nearest to the master are seated at benches writing, 
the rest of the audience stands behind. 

In this part of the corridor is a bronze model of the 
Fountain, which will be found useful in identifying the sub- 
jects of the reliefs. 

The church attached to the University has in it two 
monuments of interest. One is the sarcophagus in which 
Frate Egidio, the companion of St. Francis, was buried, the 
other is a Ciborium removed from S. Prospero, a building 
no longer consecrated. 

The sarcophagus is of the type used by the early Chris- 
tian community in Rome. It is a striking work, though not 
of the best period. A youthful and beardless Christ sits in 
the centre, and on each side, in niches separated by small 
columns, are the figures of Madonna and nine disciples. In 
the spaces formed by the canopies of the niches are wreaths, 
and birds feeding on fruit. On the cover of the tomb there 
is to the extreme left a representation of Noah in the Ark 
receiving the olive branch from the dove, and two scenes 
from the story of Jonah : to the right he is cast out of the 
ship and swallowed by the whale, to the left he has been 
thrown by the whale on the celestial shore, where he rests in 
the enjoyment of Paradise. The ark floating on the water 
signifies the Church, in which man is saved, and the promise 
of salvation comes to Noah under the figure of the olive 
branch brought by the dove. The story of Jonah is a 
symbol of the Resurrection, the goal of those who have 
received the promise. 

On the lower part of the sarcophagus the Incarnation is 



54 PERUGIA 

proclaimed as the means by which the promise is made 
good. Christ is seated on a throne ; on His right stands 
Madonna, and in the other niches is a company of nine 
disciples, probably Apostles, from the scrolls they hold in 
their hands and their bare feet. The birds which feed on 
the branches above their heads are immortal souls sustained 
by the fruit of the vine of the Lord, while the wreaths are 
crowns of glory and of eternal life, the reward of those who 
are faithful to the end. The Christ is beardless, for in early 
times it was thought that youth was the proper attribute for 
the Son of God, who was not conceived of as suffering from 
the changes of time. The veiled and robed figure of 
Madonna has the charm of classical simplicity and grace ; 
like the Apostles, she has a scroll. The nine disciples are of 
various types and ages ; they are reserved and dignified 
Roman citizens, senators rather than fishermen. There is 
in these simple figures a fine sense of order, and a delicate 
feeling for balance suggestive of an ancient civilisation and 
a tradition which has become classical. 

The Ciborium which stands near the sarcophagus is 
interesting as one of the few examples to be found in 
Umbria of the art destined to grow into the fully developed 
Romanesque style of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. 
The work is attributed to the eighth century, but whether 
this date can be trusted or no there need be little doubt 
that it is an effort of native Italian workmen to profit by 
Byzantine examples. There is the curious stiffening of 
forms, the incompetent rendering of classical detail, and the 
picturesque but unnatural realisation of living things which 
is so common in similar monuments in Northern Italy. On 
the arch facing the spectator the cross occupies the central 
place. In the triangular spaces at each side peacocks feed 
on grapes ; these are immortal souls enjoying the fruits of 
the terrestrial paradise. A similar idea is worked out on 
the arch at the back, where doves are feeding on the vine 
tendrils. 

The capitals from which the arches spring are carved with 
leaves in a tentative fashion. They look like the work of 



THE MUSEUM 55 

one who has seen good models, but has been unable to copy 
them effectively. 

TOMBS OF THE VOLUMNII 

About three miles from Perugia, near to the station of 
Ponte S. Giovanni, and on the carriage road to Assisi, is an 
Etruscan necropolis with a considerable number of under- 
ground tombs, the largest of which has been kept open and 
made accessible for visitors. 

No opportunity should be missed of visiting this sepulchre, 
which is of late date, about 150 b.o., and differs in several 
remarkable features from the tombs of Orvieto and Chiusi. 
The dead were not buried, but the ashes of the bodies when 
burned were stored in urns or chests, and placed in these 
underground chambers. The chests are still to be seen in 
their original position, and surrounded by various articles of 
sepulchral furniture. A knowledge of the appearance of the 
tombs in the different districts will be found to add greatly 
to the interest of the contents of the museums. It is 
supposed that this sepulchre belonged to one family, as the 
urns are all inscribed with one name, that of Velimnas, 
or, in Romanised form, Volumnius. 

The entrance to the tomb has been covered with a modern 
building that now serves as a storehouse for the urns taken 
from the other tombs of the necropolis, with which the land 
round about is honeycombed. 

A steep stairway cut out of the tufa leads to the doorway, 
once closed with a slab of travertine. On the door jamb is 
an inscription in Etruscan characters, which has been trans- 
lated, " Arnth Velimnas, son of Larth and Arznea, protector 
and caretaker of this sepulchre, presents the lamps for the 
funeral feasts." 

The plan of the tomb may be roughly described as con- 
sisting of a nave, with a choir and transepts and four side 
chapels. 

The end chamber, corresponding to the choir, is the only 
part of the tomb where the contents have remained undis- 



56 PERUGIA 

turbed. The other rooms have been filled with chests found 
in the neighbourhood. 

We enter first a long- vestibule, twelve feet by twenty-four 
feet, with a high-pitched roof carved in the form of rafters. 
Above the door of entrance is the figure of the sun, as a 
round globe, between two dolphins. Turning towards the 
choir, we see above the entrance a great head of Medusa, 
with bold, regular features, and wide, staring eyes. On 
either side are two smaller heads ; the one to the left has 
been destroyed, the one to the right represents Apollo. 

Symbols of the underworld, in the form of serpents made 
of terra-cotta, start out from the wall of entrance ; and imme- 
diately inside the doorway, hanging from the roof, is a little 
earthenware statuette of a winged genius. 

When we step into the small, low chamber representing 
the choir, we are at once in the presence of the Velimnas 
family. Four men and two women are reclining upon their 
couches, on the tops of the chests which contain their ashes. 
The stone, or terra-cotta, has been covered with fine white 
stucco, and carefully finished. 

The figures represent a handsome, vigorous, and able race 
of people, gathered together here, as they might have been 
in life, in pursuit of material pleasures. There is nothing to 
indicate that the next life was conceived of more spiritually 
than as a continuation of the enjoyments of this life ; and 
although surrounded by sinister and gloomy images of death, 
these sculptured portraits look out into the darkness with 
serene calmness, and with undisturbed satisfaction in the 
pleasures of eating, drinking, and adorning themselves. 

Aruns Voluninius, the head of the family, has the place 
of honour at the top of the room. His couch is elaborately 
ornamented, the pillows, coverlets, and decorations upon the 
posts are carefully realised. 

The noteworthy point, however, is that the chest is raised 
upon a pedestal, which is carved so that it resembles the 
facade of a tomb. There were originally four figures 
painted in the doorway, representing, perhaps, the shades 
of the dead, but the fresco has now almost disappeared. 



ETRUSCAN PERUGIA 57 

The entrance to this door is guarded by two seated statues 
of furies, or genii, holding torches. Their features are 
somewhat heavy, but the general effect of these figures, 
which have none of the characteristics of the frightful demon, 
is solemn and dignified. 

To the left of Aruns is the chest with the ashes of his 
daughter, to the right that of his son, and beside the latter 
there is a fine seated figure of a woman described as Veilia 
Velimna Arnthial. She sits upon a throne or chair of state, 
and one hand is raised to her shoulder apparently in the act 
of arranging her dress. Her face bears more of the stamp 
of an idealised portrait than is usual in Etruscan art, and 
is very beautiful. 

These chests are judged to be of the second century B.C., 
and the fact that some of the inscriptions are in Latin, but 
that the greater number are in Etruscan characters, would 
point to a time when Etruria had been conquered by Rome, 
but not entirely Latinised. 

The urns stored in the side chambers resemble many of 
those to be found in the museum. Some of the lids have 
recumbent figures, others are in the form of the roof of a 
house or temple. 

The subjects upon the chests represent the familiar scenes 
of the combats and tragic deaths of heroes, the punishment 
bestowed by the gods for the sin of presumption in mortals, 
and the mysterious journey of the soul to the underworld. 
There are, amongst others, the Sacrifice of Iphigenia, the 
Hunting of the Kalydonian Boar, the Death of Troilus at 
the Gate of Troy ; also a number of single figures of 
marine deities, and of sea-monsters conveying the soul upon 
its way. 

Under the shelter of the modern building, at the top 
of the stairs, there are a number of chests, some of which 
have reliefs of a less usual type. On the right of the stairs 
is a scene in which two men, armed with weapons, stand on 
either side of a post or tree. On another urn is a spirited 
design of a griffin attacking a man, a subject which is fre- 
quently to be found in Romanesque sculpture. 



58 PERUGIA 

On the left is a human sacrifice, where the victim is held 
down upon the altar by the hair, and the priest stands ready 
with his weapon. The choice of such a subject as this, and 
the manner of representation, is an evidence of the predilec- 
tion of the Etruscans for realism in art carried even to the 
point of brutality. The figure of a man between two genii 
standing upon pedestals may represent a contest for the 
soul between good and evil attendant spirits, a subject often 
represented upon the chests at Chiusi. 



TORRE DI MANNO, OR TEMPIO DI 
S. MANNO 

About three miles from Perugia, in a south-westerly 
direction, is an Etruscan tomb, called the Tempio di S. 
Maimo, which is of interest as an example of fine masonry, 
and as evidence that the Etruscans knew and used the arch 
in construction. 

Leaving Perugia, we follow the road nearly to the station, 
and, turning off to the right, continue in the same direction 
as the railway towards the station of Magione. 

A small farm has been built round about the vault, and 
above the tomb itself is a little chapel with a tower, which 
gives the popular name to the place. 

Passing through the farmyard with its picturesque sur- 
roundings, we go down a flight of steps into a semi-circular 
vault, beautifully built of travertine blocks and uncemented. 
It resembles the tomb known as the Deposito del Gran 
Duca at Chiusi. 

On each side of the room are vaulted recesses, in one 
of which are blocks of stone supposed to have been altars. 
They are grooved at the upper edge as if to carry off the 
blood, and their presence has caused the vault to be re-" 
garded as a temple. According to Dennis, however, ancient 
sepulchres frequently included a shrine, where offerings were 
made to the spirits of the dead. 

An inscription of unusual length in Etruscan characters 



ETRUSCAN PERUGIA 59 

is cut in clear large letters upon the side of the vault to 
the left of the entrance. From the open ground outside of 
the farm buildings is a view which will well repay those 
who make the excursion. 

A magnificent panorama of the city of Perugia lies before 
us, from S. Pietro in the south-east, to S. Francesco-al- 
Monte and S. Angelo in the north-west. 



MONUMENTS IN THE CENTRE OF 
THE TOWN 

The Palazzo Pubblico 

The Palazzo Pubblico is not of one date throughout, but a 
fair degree of uniformity in style has been maintained in the 
different parts. The building is mainly of the fourteenth 
century, when the Guelph party and the wealthy townsmen 
known as "Raspanti" were in power. It has none of the 
character of a fortified castle such as we see in the Palazzo 
Vecchio and the Bargello at Florence ; it is designed for pur- 
poses of city government only. Its architecture is not in- 
teresting as such, nevertheless there is a general air of 
magnificence symbolical of the thriving commune, ruled 
by well-to-do citizens. 

A building for public purposes was begun at the end of 
the thirteenth century, the year 1281 being usually given as 
the date. In 1300 a number of houses occupying part of the 
site of the present palace were bought, so that a more 
honourable place might be built, and in connection with this 
purchase it is mentioned that quarrels had already arisen 
about S. Severo, a church which occupied part of the site. 
In 1333 the foundation of the central part of the present 
building was laid, and the fine doorway opening on to the 
Corso is attributed to 1340. The Priors had been living in 
the palace of the Canonica, but in 1346 additions were made 
to the Palazzo Pubblico, and in 1353 they went to live in it. 
Dormitories for the Priors were added in 1429, and the mass 
of building as we now see it was completed at the southern 



60 PERUGIA 

end, when the part including the Sala del Cambio was begun 
in 1452. 

Entering by the main doorway from the Corso, and mount- 
ing the stair, we turn to the left and reach the Sala del 
Consiglio. Over the door, in the lunette, is a painting of 
Madonna and Child by Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. This hall is 
called the Sala del Malconsiglio, for it was here that it was 
agreed to set free the prisoners of Hawkwood's English 
Company, who afterwards defeated the Perugians. 

In the Sala d'Udienza there is a portrait of Julius III. 
(1 550-1 555) by Adone Doni of Assisi. There is also a list 
of the twenty-five persons killed on the 20th June 1859 in 
the conflict with the papal soldiers. 

In the reception room of the Syndic are modern pictures 
representing Biordo Michelotti (d. 1398), Braccio Forte- 
braccio (d. 1424), Piccinino (d. 1444), and other illustrious 
persons connected with Perugia. 

On the same level as these rooms, but to the right of the 
main staircase, is the Hall of the Notaries. It is an immense 
room, of which the roof is supported by a series of cross 
arches. On the walls are coats of arms. 

Returning to the main staircase and passing to the floor 
above, there is to the left the Picture Gallery, and to the 
right the Library belonging to the town. 

The principal doorway of the Palazza Pubblico is a fine 
work covered with elaborate detail, and dating from about 
1340. The general effect is extremely rich, the mouldings, 
jambs, and lintels are wrought with great care, and the result 
is picturesque in spite of over-elaboration and want of breadth 
and boldness in the design. 

At the springing of the outer arch on each side are 
griffins resting on brackets. Below them, and supporting 
the pilasters at the sides of the door, are lions. Here we 
have the ensigns of the city and of the Guelph party. 

The pilasters resting on the lions are sculptured with 
figures, to some of which inscriptions are attached. On 
the left at the top is a young woman dancing, inscribed 
" allegricia." Below is a woman with two torches, one 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 61 

lighted — perhaps a figure of Vigilance. The lowest figure 
is " Humilitas," with a lamp in her hand and a lamb at her 
feet. On the right, the upper figure, a woman holding a 
sword, is inscribed as " Magna Veritas." In the middle, a 
woman with a palm branch and an animal beside her, may 
be a figure of Peace. The lowest figure has two serpents 
twined about her. 

In the tympanum are three statues. Two are bishops, 
and the other is a youthful figure in a dress resembling that 
of the deacon S. Lorenzo on the fountain in the piazza. 
Both the bishops are middle-aged, or elderly, and neither of 
them could therefore (as is sometimes supposed) represent 
S. Louis the Bishop, who died as a young man. The three 
figures are probably those of SS. Lorenzo, Costanzo, and 
Ercolano. 

The moulding which encircles the tympanum is enriched 
with coats of arms and ensigns of Perugia and her allies. 
There is the Griffin of the City, the Lily of Florence, the 
Lilies of the French house of Naples, the Papal Keys, also 
shields with the legend S.P.Q.R., reminding us that at this 
time Rienzi established the Holy Roman Republic. On the 
7th June 1347, he sent letters to Perugia and other Italian 
towns inviting them to send deputies to a national parliament 
in Rome on the 1st August. On that day Rienzi published 
a decree declaring the City of Rome to be the head of the 
World, and at night the deputies were entertained at a great 
banquet. Next day there was celebrated the festival of the 
unity of Italy, and flags were presented to the deputies of 
the towns. The banner of Constantine, with the white eagle 
on a red ground, and with the words " Asia, Africa, Europa," 
was given to Perugia. 

The jambs and lintels of the door are covered with 
small figures, among which will be found representations of 
Justice, Avarice, &c, but they are not named, and most of 
them are not of recognised types that permit of identification. 
In the centre of the lintel, however, it is possible to distin- 
guish the Judgment of Solomon. The king is seated on 
Jiis throne, commanding the soldier to divide the living 



62 PERUGIA 

child. To the left is the false mother, who approves the 
decision, and on the right is the true mother, begging that 
the child may be saved. This, from its position, is intended 
to be the central idea of the sculpture. According to a 
mediaeval saying, " the world is best disposed when Justice 
is most potent therein," and it was a common idea among 
the Italian communes to proclaim this truth on their public 
buildings. In the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena, in the fresco 
representing " Good Government," Justice guided by Wisdom 
is the controlling force in the State ; and in the Ducal Palace 
at Venice, one of the great corner-stones has this same sub- 
ject of the Judgment of Solomon sculptured upon it. 

The Fountain 

of Perugia was built in the piazza to distribute the water 
which was brought into the town from Monte Pacciano in 
1280. It is a monument purely secular in its purpose ; it 
is important as being a fine example of Italian sculpture 
when that art was in its most critical stage of development ; 
it is interesting as a curious illustration of the ideals of life 
in a free Italian commune at a time when the people had 
thrown off external control, and had not yet fallen victims 
to passion and faction. It is, besides, valuable as a record 
of the customs, habits, and appearance of all ranks of 
society at the end of the thirteenth century. 

The work was given to Fra Bevignate, a Benedictine, 
along with a Frate Alberto and a certain Boninsegna, a 
Venetian architect. It was begun in 1277, and water came 
into the piazza in 1280. Part of the sculptor's' work may 
have been done later, however, judging from records of pay- 
ments for work in 128 1. The style of the sculpture is equally 
removed from Romanesque work and from Renaissance art. 
It has been recognised as belonging to the Pisan school. 
Niccolo Pisano (1206 ?-i 280?), his son, Giovanni Pisano 
(1240?- 1 320), and Arnolfo del Cambio (1240-1315 ?),are the 
names generally associated with the sculpture. In time it 
stands midway between Niccolo's pulpit at Siena (1266) and 
Giovanni's at St. Andrea Pistoia (about 1300), and it re- 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 63 

sembles neither. There is a simplicity and reserve in the 
style and a directness in design which associate it neither 
with the classical tendencies of the father nor the gothic 
tendencies of the son. If we conclude with some authorities 
that the design of the fountain was made by Niccolo and 
that the execution is that of the younger men, his pupils, 
Giovanni and Arnolfo, it may solve some of our difficulties. 
The work is untrammelled by any close adherence to classi- 
cal models such as formed the study of Niccolo Pisano ; it is 
equally free from the uncontrolled energy and the artificial 
straining after effect that we find in some of the sculpture of 
his son Giovanni. It is full of that new life which was to 
bear good fruit in the fourteenth century, and it seems to 
anticipate the influence of Giotto (1 276-1 337), as we see it 
guiding the hand of Andrea Pisano (died after 1349) on the 
Campanile at Florence. Indeed, the sculpture of the foun- 
tain has more in common with the masterpieces of the 
Campanile than with the reliefs of the pulpits either at Siena 
or at Pistoia. 

The statues round the upper basin have a certain unity 
of style bespeaking the influence of definite tradition, but 
at the same time there is a sufficient individual difference to 
suggest the work of several hands. The statues of Moses, 
David, Solomon, St. John the Baptist, and St. Benedict are 
wanting in distinction and refinement. On the other hand, 
the figures of Matteo da Corregio, Herman, " Divinitas 
Excelsa," S. Lorenzo the Deacon, and "Clericus Proditor 
Sancti Erculani," are rendered in a style at once broad, 
simple, and direct, and with a cogency that it would be 
difficult to exceed. 

" Sancta Ecclesia," " Roma Caput Mundi," and the Saint 
in Contemplation, probably represent the work of the same 
or a closely allied hand, having its highest expression in the 
" Roma," and showing its weakness in the heads of SS, 
Peter and Paul. 

Among the feminine personifications there is a tolerably 
distinct and uniform type to be noticed in the Victory, 
The Lady of the Corn Lands, The Lady of the Fish-bear- 



64 PERUGIA 

ing Lake, and The Girl bearing the head of Holofernes 
or St. John the Baptist. Grace and simplicity characterise 
all these figures, but it is the grace of mediaeval and not of 
classical tradition. 

The fountain consists of two lower cisterns and an upper 
basin. In this latter part of the structure there is a group of 
four women with arms intertwined, supporting a griffin, the 
ensign of the city, and a lion, the emblem of the Guelph 
party. 

The metal work is attributed to Rosso, a native Perugian. 

The sculpture of the whole monument is designed with 
the purpose of setting before us, by means of symbols, of 
personifications, of historical personages and scenes, of Bible 
stories and fables, a complete philosophy of life and 
society. 

In the following general outline these ideas are given as. 
shortly as possible. 

The twenty-four statues on the upper cistern relate to the 
constitution of society, the bas-reliefs on the lower cistern 
deal with the development of the individuals of which that 
society is composed. 

To make the notes on these sculptures more easy to follow, 
a list is prefixed, both of the reliefs and the statues, in the 
order which they now occupy. 

PANELS ON THE LOWER CISTERN OF THE FOUNTAIN 

1. The Fall. 

2. The Expulsion. 

3. Samson kills the Lion. 

4. Samson shorn of his locks. 

5. Fable of the old Lion. 

6. Fable of the Dog. 

7. David preparing the sling. 

8. Goliath lies dead. 

9. Romulus. 

10. Remus. 

11. Romulus and Remus nourished by the Wolf. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 65 

12. Mother of Romulus and Remus. 

13. Fable of the Wolf and the Crane. 

14. Fable of the Wolf and the Lamb. 

15. January. Man warming himself at the fire. 

16. Woman with domestic utensils. 

17. February. Man fishing. 

18. Man carrying fish in a basket. 

19. March. Man taking thorns out of his feet. 

20. Man pruning vines. 

21. April. Young man with a branch and a flower in his 
hand. 

22. A young woman, with her hair dressed in coils, hold- 
ing a basket of flowers. 

23. May. A young rider with a bunch of flowers. 

24. Lady on horseback with a hawk on her wrist. 

25. June. Man cutting corn. 

26. Man binding sheaves. 

27. July. Man threshing with a flail. 

28. Winnowing grain. 

29. August. Man gathers figs. 

30. Young girl with a basket of fruit. 

31. September. Man treading grapes. 

32. Man carries grapes to be crushed. 

33. October. Man pouring wine into a barrel. 

34. Man making a barrel. 

35. November. Man ploughing with oxen. 

36. Young man sowing corn. 

37. December. Man cutting the carcase of a pig. 

38. Man carrying an animal on his shoulder. 

39. The Lion, the symbol of the Guelph party. 

40. The Griffin, the symbol of Perugia. 

41. Grammar. 

42. Dialectic. 

43. Rhetoric. 

44. Arithmetic. 

45. Geometry. 



66 PERUGIA 

46. Music. 

47. Astronomy. 

48. Philosophy. 

49. Eagle. 

50. Eagle. 

STATUES ON THE UPPER CISTERN 
i. Heulixtus, the mythical founder of Perugia. 

2. David, King of Israel. 

3. Moses with the rod and the table of the law. 

4. Matteo da Corregio, Podesta of Perugia in 1278. 

5. Melchisedek. 

6. The Archangel Michael. 

7. King Solomon. 

8. Herman of Sassoferrato, Captain of the People in 
Perugia in 1278. 

9. Victoria Magna. Victory. 

10. St. Peter. 

11. Ecclesia Romana. The Church. 

12. Roma Caput Mundi — Rome the head of the world. 

13. Divinitas excelsa — the Divine Idea represented in the 
Priesthood. 

14. St. Paul. 

15. Clericus beati Laurentii. A saint in contemplation 
of blessedness in heaven. 

16. Sanctus Laurentius bonum opus operatus est — S. 
Lorenzo, the doer of good deeds. 

17. Domina Clusii ferens granum Perusie — The lady of 
the corn lands of Chiusi bearing grain for Perugia. 

18. Augusta Perusia est fertilis de omnibus his — Perugia 
rich in all things. 

19. Domina laci ferens pisces Perusie — The lady of the 
lake bearing fish for Perugia. 

20. S. Ercolano. 

21. Clericus proditor sancti Erculani — The priest, betrayer 
of S. Ercolano. 

22. Sanctus Benedictus habens spiritum profetie — St. 
Benedict, having the spirit of prophecy. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 67 

23. Puella ferens — Judith or Salome. 

24. St. John the Baptist. 

We now turn to the attempt to give some explanation of 
the intention of the sculpture. 

Man was created in the image and likeness of God. After 
the fall his supreme desire was to escape from the bondage 
of the finite and return to the infinite, to the source from 
which he was conscious of having sprung. The organisation 
of the life of society and of the individual must be directed 
to this end. 

It was believed that, as the whole constitution of the indi- 
vidual, physical, moral, and mental, was the gift of the 
Infinite, and partook in some degree of the nature of the 
Giver, the way of right living must lie in the utmost possible 
development of all aptitudes, and society must be so con- 
stituted that the whole capacity of each of its individual 
members should be fully actualised. The supreme realisa- 
tion of the individual consists in the perception of truth — not 
the truth as it is concerned with relations of the phenomena 
of the visible world, but the truth as it is perceived in the 
general principles lying beyond, which form the animating 
and eternal element in the transitory conditions of nature. 
It was therefore by this process of speculation, by the 
search after general principles, that man was to reach 
his goal. The condition of society in which speculative 
energy could be best developed was in the quiet and tran- 
quillity of peace. Hence, as Dante says, "there sounded 
to the shepherds from on high, not riches, not pleasures, 
not honours, nor length of life, nor health, nor strength, nor 
beauty — but peace." 

Speculation as the supreme function of man is dependent 
on a nature duly harmonised in its parts ; there must be a 
sound body, a rightly directed will, and a fully trained 
intellect, all at peace with one another and working for 
a common end — peace in the individual is just as necessary 
as it is in society. 

The purpose of the sculpture on the lower cistern of 



68 PERUGIA 

the Fountain is to show how the Individual may attain 
the truly balanced life necessary for the speculative 
habit ; and the upper cistern explains the Constitution 
of Society which most fully enables the individual to 
actualise his capacities. The summing-up of the idea of 
the whole is found in the figure of Philosophy, by which 
man reaches out to the divine and the infinite. 

We begin with the panels on the lower cistern, on which 
are developed the life of the individual : — • 

Panels i and 2. The Temptation and Fall strike the 
note of the whole series. Discord has entered into the 
world. Man is no longer in harmony with the will of God, 
nor is his own nature in harmony with itself. The will does 
not perceive clearly what is the true good, the body asserts 
itself against the will and the reason, while the reason 
suffers alike from an ill -governed body and a wrongly 
directed will. Vice and Ignorance take the place of Virtue 
and Knowledge. 

The designer of the panels sets himself to show how the 
will, the body, and the reason are to recover their proper 
functions. 

Panels 3-14 deal with the moral and religious nature ; 
they suggest how the will of man is to be brought into true 
harmony, so that it may desire the supreme good and impel 
the whole being towards it. 

Panels 15-39 deal with the re-establishment of order and 
harmony, in the physical relations of man. 

Panels 42-48 explain the conditions of intellectual 
harmony, and how the reason is perfected by the search 
after truth. 

Panel 49. Philosophy is a synthesis of the whole con- 
ception. 

Starting with the reliefs on the lower cistern at the north- 
western side of the Fountain, and opposite the shops under 
the Loggia : — 

1. The Temptation and Fall. Eve presents the apple to 
Adam, and immediately behind her is the tree with the 
serpent twined round the stem. The design is extremely 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 69 

simple ; the heads are disproportionately large, as often 
happens in works of the Pisan school. 

2. The Expulsion from Paradise. Adam and Eve have 
covered themselves with leaves. The hand of God in the 
left corner signifies the command that they shall leave the 
garden. The simple method by which the power of God 
is symbolised is striking. 

3 and 4. The Story of Samson. 3. In his strength, tear- 
ing open the lion's mouth. His hair floats on his shoulders, 
the symbol of his moral vigour. The expression of physical 
power is effectively rendered. 

4. Samson lies with his head in the lap of Delilah. She 
has cut off his hair, and he has lost his physical strength as 
well as his moral vigour. The lines of the composition 
indicate the point admirably. 

5. Fable of the Old Lion, who, having lost his strength, 
is attacked by all those whom he has previously injured. 
The Lion lies under a tree and the inscription runs — " Si 
vis ut timeat leo." The moral attached is that those who 
have meted out injuries in the days of their strength, will 
themselves receive injury in the days of their weakness. 

6. Fable of the Old Dog, with the inscription " Verbera 
Catulum." 

7 and 8. The Story of David and Goliath. The power of 
the Spirit working in David, is contrasted with the weakness 
of Samson. 

7. The youthful David prepares the sling. There is a 
notable contrast between the simple shepherd and the mail- 
clad warrior, suggestive of the true source of power. 

8. Goliath, the giant, clothed in armour is slain. This is a 
remarkable design ; the effect of death is most competently 
gained, and the disposition of the figure is skilful. 

The panels 9, 10, 11, 12 relate to the foundation of the 
City of Rome. The lesson we gather is that no man can 
stand alone, no man is self-sufficient. The individual can 
only be properly developed in a well-ordered social state, 
and Rome was the divinely appointed agent for temporal 
rule. 



jo PERUGIA 

9 and 10 represent the twin mythical founders of Rome, 
each seated and holding vultures in their hands, in reference 
to the augury drawn from the flight of these birds which 
decided the site and name of the city. 

ii. The miraculous preservation of the twins nourished 
by a wolf. The tree at the back of the animal is the Ficus 
rumwafc's, the sacred fig which caught the cradle of the 
future founders as it floated down the river. This is a most 
picturesque panel. 

12. The mother of the twins holding an object which has 
been explained as a sieve, to indicate that she was a Vestal 
Virgin and as a sign of chastity. 

13. Fable of the Crane who draws a bone from the throat 
of a wolf. When the reward, which has been offered, is 
claimed, the wolf reminds the crane that escape from his 
jaws is reward enough. The application was that the rich, 
who live by the labour of the poor, are like the wolf. They 
receive many benefits from the poor, and return evil for 
good. 

14. The wolf accuses the lamb of fouling the stream as 
an excuse for seizing and devouring her. The moral drawn 
is that those who act with violence and cruelty add to their 
sin by calumniating those whom they have injured. 

The use of parables, or " exempla," as they were called, 
was common in mediaeval preaching, and especially so after 
the rise of the mendicant orders. In sermons addressed to 
the unlearned, fables and stories were used as illustrations 
to fix the attention of the audience. Collections of these 
"exempla" were made for the use of preachers, and in 
many well-known cases a recognised moral was attached. 
The drift of the " exempla " on the Fountain is a warning 
against the vices of pride, oppression, and cruelty exercised 
by the strong against the weak, and the rich against the 
poor. 

From the Old Testament examples we see how Samson 
is lost through moral weakness, how David conquers in the 
power of the Spirit, and how Goliath falls a victim to pride. 

The panels 15 to 38 deal with order in the material 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN ji 

Creation. They represent the labours and pleasures of 
man, as they correspond to the seasons of the year. 
Labour was alike a punishment and a blessing. On these 
panels it is the means of maintaining life, of supplying the 
wants of the body, and of affording scope for the pleasures 
of social existence. The subtle harmony between the 
forces of nature and the life of man is suggested in the 
parallel course of the heavens, of the seasons, and the 
labours necessary to bring to fruition the powers of the 
earth. Twenty-four panels are occupied with the labours 
and pleasures associated with the course of the sun through 
the heavens and the consequent change of season. Each 
month has two panels assigned to it with some appropriate 
illustration of human energy. In one of these panels there 
is or has been the sign of the Zodiac, to mark the relation 
between the sun, the season, and the labour. 

After the fall, man became subject to the conditions of 
time and change — his life was a passage from the infirmities 
of childhood to those of old age. The earth likewise was 
cursed for his sake, and it was only by labour that nature 
could be made to yield her increase. The food which man 
won by the sweat of his brow tempered the infirmities of the 
body, daily bread and daily work became equally necessary. 

The material conditions of fallen human nature were 
thus necessarily expressed in terms of the changes wrought 
by time, and of the labour by which the earth is made to 
yield her fruits. The passing of time was evident on every 
hand, the new life of spring was followed by the growth of 
summer, the fruition of autumn, and the death of winter. 
The passage of the sun through the heavens summed up 
these ideas of change just as the life-giving power of his 
rays became the symbol for the idea of life. The sun in the 
heavens was the type of the Sun of Righteousness, and the 
course of the sun marked by the signs of the Zodiac became 
a figure of the life of Christ upon earth. As the passage of 
the Sun through the Natural Zodiac gave life to material 
things, so the passage of Christ through the Spiritual 
Zodiac gave moral and spiritual life to mankind. 



72 PERUGIA 

The analogies between physical and spiritual condi- 
tions were widely developed. The rising up of the new life 
of spring from the death of the old life in winter was re- 
garded as a type of the resurrection ; the passage of the 
seasons illustrated the ages of man. The sowing of seed, 
the harvesting of the crop, and the threshing of grain were 
imagined as the planting of the Word of God in the heart, 
the coming to judgment, and the dividing of the good from 
the evil. 

There was an analogy between labour and the sacraments 
of the Church, for as labour, in conjunction with the sun, 
produced the food necessary for man's physical infirmities, 
so the sacraments, as the outward and visible signs of the 
life-giving power of the Sun of Righteousness, brought 
spiritual health and strength to the sinner. Labour does 
for the physical man what the sacraments do for the 
spiritual man. By labour the infirmities of the body are 
overcome, by the sacraments the infirmities of the soul 
are conquered. 

The connection between the sun and the labour of man 
naturally led to the representation of work in connection 
with the course of the seasons. Labour was therefore ex- 
pressed by the various occupations and interests throughout 
the months of the year, as they were regulated by the path 
of the sun through the heavens. Thus the labours of the 
months became an expression of divine beneficence 
by which man can overcome the physical effects of 
the fall. They may be described as the sacrament of 
labour. 

It is in relation to such ideas as these that we find plough- 
ing, sowing, reaping, and gathering into barns, taking their 
place in the popular expression of mediaeval religion, in so 
far as they express the relation between the divine will and 
the physical infirmities of man's fallen nature. We find, 
therefore, such subjects as the labours of the months 
sculptured at Lucca, at Pisa, on S. Marco in Venice, and 
on many of the French cathedrals and other churches 
throughout Western Europe. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 73 

The panels of April and May generally differ from 
the rest, inasmuch as they illustrate the pleasures of life 
rather than the labours. It is usual to find them figured 
by young men or maidens riding gaily, and holding flowers 
in their hands, or with a wreath of flowers, and sometimes 
one of the joyous figures has a hawk on the wrist. This is 
an expression of the sympathy between the fresh life of the 
season and the joys of youth, the earthly flowers they 
bear being the figure of the spiritual flowers forming the 
heavenly crown that rewards the life led in harmony with 
the order of creation. 

December and January also stand apart from the series 
of labours. These months are nearly always illustrated by 
pleasures connected with eating and drinking, in fulfilment 
of such promises as that of Psalm cxxviii. 2, where it is 
said that those who fear the Lord shall eat the labour of 
their hands. The passage, Isaiah xxi. 5, " Prepare the 
table, watch in the watch tower, eat, drink," was allegorised 
as referring to those who receive spiritual strength from the 
sacraments of the Church. It is probable that an idea such 
as this lay dimly behind the habit, that has connected some 
Christian anniversaries with festive pleasures. 

The following is a descriptive list of the panels, 15 to 38, 
which we have been considering : — 

15. Aquarius. The sign usually placed in the right hand 
corner has disappeared. A man warmly clothed sits before 
a fire, with a drinking vessel and a plate of food. 

16. Januarius. An old woman with a jug and some other 
vessel. 

17. Pisces. The sign of the two fishes in the corner. A 
man fishing in the costume of a fisherman, as we see him 
to-day, on the Lake of Trasimeno. 

18. Februarius. A man carrying a basket, perhaps selling 
fish. 

19. Socius (so called, it is said, because this sign, Aries, 
accompanies the sun closely). A man takes the thorns from 
his feet — a figure significant of the season when one begins 
to walk barefoot. 



74 PERUGIA 

20. Martius. A man prunes a vine which is trained upon 
a tree in the fashion still common in Italy. 

21. Taurus. A young man holding a branch and flowers. 

22. Aprilus. A young woman with a basket of flowers. 

23. Gemini, and 24, Maius. These two panels form a 
pretty picture of a hawking party. A young man, crowned 
with flowers and holding a spray of roses, follows a lady on 
horseback, with a hawk on her wrist. The horse on which 
the lady rides shows that the artist had much less know- 
ledge of animal form than is usual in this work. 

25. Socius (Cancer — so called for the same reason as 
Aries). A man cuts corn. 

26. Junius. A man binds sheaves. 

27. Leo (the sign has almost disappeared). A man 
threshing with a flail. The sculptor shows complete con- 
trol over the human figure in action. The effect of motion 
and effort is gained with simplicity and certainty. 

28. Julius. A man winnows. The grain falls in a shower 
from his tool. 

29. Socius (Virgo). A bareheaded man, lightly clothed, 
gathers figs in a basket. 

30. Augustus. A young girl sits under a tree with a 
basket of fruit. This is a graceful and natural figure. — The 
two panels 29 and 30 make a lovely picture of rural life. 

31. Libra. A man treads grapes in a vat ; he has a staff 
in one hand. 

32. September. A man brings grapes to the press on his 
shoulders. He wears a hood and a loose tunic. The pose 
of a figure carrying weight has been accurately observed, 
and the sense of movement is competently rendered. 

33. Scorpius. A man pours wine into a cask. 

34. October. A man dressed in a long, loose tunic makes 
a cask. This is a noteworthy piece of naturalism. 

35. Sagitarius. A man ploughing with two oxen. The 
difficulty of fitting the subject into the space has not been 
overcome. The treatment of the cattle is ineffective and 
trifling. 

36. November. A man sowing ; he carries the seed in 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 75 

his apron. This is a fine piece of sculpture. The gracious 
air of the youth and the sense of effortless movement are 
alike attractive. 

37. Capricornus. A man cutting up the carcase of a pig. 

38. December. A man carries an animal, probably a pig, 
upon his shoulders. He is greeted by his dog. 

The panels 39 and 40 have respectively a Lion and a 
Griffin, the one the symbol of the Guelph party, the other 
that of the city of Perugia. 

The last division of the panels on the lower basin 
(41-48) is concerned with the seven liberal arts and 
with philosophy. 

The first three figures (41, 42, 43) are those of Grammar, 
Dialectic, and Rhetoric, making up the Mediaeval Trivium 
by which man is taught the art of reasoning. 

Grammar opens the gate of knowledge ; her function is to 
preserve purity of language. By means of grammar change 
in the habit of speech is regulated and restrained, so that 
man does not lose touch with the experience of past times 
on account of the strangeness and diversity of tongue. 
Grammar also teaches the art of discussing rightly and with 
due regard to precision and aptness of expression. 

Dialectic is the art of discussing truly ; it teaches the 
rules of right reasoning, and it formed the most important 
element of mediaeval education. 

Rhetoric, the third of the three ways, teaches the art of 
discussing fitly, so that men may be persuaded according to 
the will of the speaker. 

To these succeed the four figures representing the Mediae- 
val Quadrivium — Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and Astro- 
nomy. They are the arts of the physicist, and they deal with 
the phenomena of the visible world. The universe was con- 
ceived of as being disposed according to number, weight, and 
measure, hence the importance of mathematics, which in- 
cludes the four arts. 

The preliminaries of mathematical science are taught in 
arithmetic. By geometry man is led to perceive the con- 
tinuous existence and the immutable essence which underlie 



76 PERUGIA 

phenomena. Music, having for its principle unison and pro- 
portion, teaches of the divine harmony, the bond common to 
all creation. Astronomy, in its higher development, leads 
the soul up to first principles and nearer to the Creative 
Power. These seven arts or sciences give to the mind a 
training which fits it for the highest function of all, that of 
speculating on general principles, by which man learns to 
make himself eternal. 

The seven sciences are the handmaids of Philosophy, 
and Philosophy is the " loving use of wisdom, and that 
loving wisdom is most in God, for in Him is Highest 
Wisdom, Highest Love, and Highest Power" (Co7ivito, ii., 
xii. 94-98)- 

Philosophy is therefore the last term of the actualisation 
of human capacity, and by it man approaches nearly to 
the Infinite. 

We go on to consider the panels in detail. 

The three first panels (41, 42, and 43) constitute the 
Trivium in the mediaeval scheme of education. 

41. Grammar. The teacher lays her hand upon the child's 
shoulder. This is a pleasant panel and effective in its sim- 
plicity. 

42. Dialectic wears a doctor's hood and robes, and holds 
a scorpion. The divided tail of this animal signified the 
terms of the syllogism. 

43. Rhetoric. The pupil stands in front with folded arms, 
as though reciting. The figure of the scholar is noteworthy. 

The next four panels constitute the Mediaeval Quadri- 
vium. 

44. Arithmetic. The scholar stands before the teacher 
counting. This is a charming relief. 

45. Geometry, represented as a woman with a pair of 
compasses bending over a desk. This is one of the most 
graceful and effective figures in the whole series. 

46. Music plays on a row of bells with a hammer. 

47. Astronomy. The teacher directs the pupil's head so 
as to look up at the stars. 

48. Philosophy. She is crowned as a queen and seated 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 77 

on a throne. Her grand air is worthy of the position that 
Philosophy takes in the scheme of the Fountain. 

Surveying these sculptures as a whole we see that there 
are three main divisions dealing (1) with religion and 
morals, (2) with the material, and (3) with the intel- 
lectual needs of man. The religious and moral teaching 
is enforced in the subjects on the panels from the Tempta- 
tion to the foundation of the social state of which Rome 
was the type. The relationship of man to the other forces 
of creation, is exemplified in the series of the labours of the 
months ; and the reasoning faculty by which ignorance is 
overcome is dealt with in the series of the Seven Liberal 
Arts and Philosophy. 

Religion and Morals overcoming Vice by a rightly 
directed will, intellectual capacity enlightening the dark- 
ness of ignorance, and ' the energy with which the forces 
of nature are developed, furnish the means of perfecting 
human nature. The evils that have overtaken the human 
race, and the sterility with which the earth has been cursed 
as the result of the fall, are healed by the sacrament of 
love, of learning, and of labour. 

The panels 49 and 50 bring us back to the starting-point. 
The figures of the Eagle (the ensign of Pisa) were probably 
placed here by the sculptors in honour of their own town. 

Turning to the twenty-four statues round the upper cistern 
we find that no importance can be attached to their relative 
position. The Fountain has been restored, and it is evident 
from the inscription round the base, which does not run 
properly, that the existing order is not the one originally 
intended. 

The sculpture on the upper cistern deals with society as 
a whole, and as it has existed under the old and the new 
dispensations. Ancient Society was based on the Priest, 
the Lawgiver, and the King, typified here by Melchisedek, 
Moses, David, and Solomon. The link between the old 
and the new is found in St. John the Baptist. Through 
him we pass to society under the Christian dispensation 
resting on the Church and the Empire — as the divinely 



78 PERUGIA 

appointed agents of the will of God. To the Church has 
been committed the spiritual, and to the Empire the tem- 
poral destinies of society. These are represented by 
" Ecclesia Romana " and " Roma." The spiritual forces 
which control society through the Church are set forth 
under the figures of SS. Peter and Paul, " Clericus ex- 
celsa," and St. Benedict, while the special needs of Perugia 
are under the protection of SS. Lorenzo and Ercolano. 

The temporal wants of society are under the general 
direction of Rome as representing imperial power, but the 
detail of government is committed to the city of Perugia — 
her origin and her rule being explained in the figures of 
Heulixtus, the Podesta, and the Captain of the People. 

We begin with the sculpture illustrating Society under 
the old dispensation — the examples are over the relief 
of the " Temptation " and " Fall " on the lower cistern. 

Nos. 2, 3, 5, and 7 represent the typical guides of Ancient 
Civilisation. 

2. David, the King, playing a harp. This figure and 
some others near it are much spoilt by the falling water. 

3. Moses, the lawgiver, with the tables of the law and the 
rod of authority. The type here is more commonplace than 
in the case of King David. 

5. Melchisedek, the spiritual guide, the type of the priest- 
hood. This figure is a restoration. 

7. Solomon representing the wisdom of the temporal 
ruler. An undignified figure. 

The bond between the Ancient Society and the Modern 
is found in Statue 24, that of St. John the Baptist — an un- 
satisfactory and weak piece of work. 

We now turn to the constitution of Modern Society 
under the New Dispensation. The mediaeval idea of the 
Church and the Empire was in theory a very wide one. 
The Emperor was not merely the temporal administrator, 
nor was the Pope merely the ecclesiastical ruler formally 
regulating dogma and discipline. 

The Emperor was concerned with temporal felicity. This 
is to be gained by the realisation of human capacity, 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 79 

which becomes possible through the teachings of Philo- 
sophy. When man acts in accordance with these instruc- 
tions, which he is enabled to do by the light of the moral 
and intellectual virtues, then he enjoys terrestrial happiness. 
It is for the Emperor so to guide the world that this end 
may be reached. 

The Pope is concerned with the felicity of eternal life. 
This is to be gained by the teachings of the Holy Spirit, 
which in the light of the theological virtues — Faith, Hope, 
and Charity — makes clear to man the revelation set forth 
by the Prophets, the Sacred Writers, and the Son of God. 

It is the duty of the Emperor and the Pope so to regulate 
the Empire and the Church that man may pass from the 
joys of the earthly paradise to those of the celestial paradise. 
Having exercised all the duties of the active life, and en- 
joyed a foretaste of the eternal in the life of speculation, 
man at last reaches his goal, the vision of the Infinite 
and community with God. 

The following is a list of the sculptures which set forth 
the ideas we have been considering. The series begin with 
the government of the town of Perugia : — 

1. Heulixtus, an Etruscan king, who was supposed to 
have founded the city. The sculpture is meagre and want- 
ing in dignity. 

Nos. 4 and 8 represent what we may call the judicial and 
executive heads of the City State. 

4. Matteo da Corregio, Podesta of Perugia at the time 
the Fountain was being built (1278). The figure, in a citizen's 
robe and cap, gains some distinction from its simplicity. 

8. Herman of Sassoferrato, Captain of the People in 1278. 
He is dressed as a citizen ; he wears a plain cap, and carries 
a short sword and gloves. This is the figure of a strong, 
capable man, suggestive of the citizen soldier rather than the 
knight errant. Its simple breadth of style gives dignity and 
character to the work. 

9. Victoria Magna. This figure is imperfect ; the sym- 
bols have been damaged. She recalls the success in arms of 
the citizens of Perugia. 



80 PERUGIA 

10, ii, 12, 13, and 14 relate to the two great powers — the 
Church and the Empire, both having their seat in Rome. 
The Church (1 1) is represented by a young woman bearing a 
church — "Ecclesia Romana." The Empire (12) is figured as 
a crowned queen seated on a throne, peaceful and victorious, 
holding a palm-branch — " Roma caput mundi." The figure 
of the Church is one of the most beautiful on the Fountain. 
That of " Roma," though grievously damaged, is a marvel of 
strength and dignity. The Church is further represented 
by (10) St. Peter, (14) St. Paul, and (13) " Divinitas 
Excelsa." There is a certain dignity in the figures of the 
two Apostles, but the sculpture of their heads is entirely un- 
worthy. " Divinitas Excelsa " is one of the finest in the whole 
series ; it would be hard to overrate its charming simplicity. 

S. Lorenzo, the patron saint of Perugia, in whose name the 
Duomo is dedicated, appears in a twofold relation in 1 5 and 16. 

1 5. S. Lorenzo is the heavenly citizen. This figure is so 
unfortunately damaged that the entire effect is lost. 

16. S. Lorenzo, with the inscription, " Sanctus Laurentius 
bonum opus operatus est." He wears the deacon's dress ; 
he is the worker of good works in the church militant. This 
sculpture is a model of strength, simplicity, and directness. 

The three next figures are personifications of the city state 
and its dependencies. 

17. Domina Clusii ferens granum Perusie— The lady of 
the corn lands between Chiana and the Lake of Trasimeno. 
This is a gracefully draped figure. The face is of the same type 
as "Victoria Magna " and other of the female personifications. 

18. Augusta Perusia, fertile in all things. A beautiful 
matron holding a horn of plenty filled with fruits. 

19. Domina laci ferens pisces Perusie — The lady of 
Lake Trasimeno yielding fish for food. This figure is not so 
charming as the lady of the corn lands. 

20. S. Ercolano, the Bishop and defender of the city 
against King Totila. He is shown here as a well-propor- 
tioned and dignified figure, with a vigorous personality. 

21. The unfortunate Cleric through whom the town was 
delivered into the hands of Totila. This figure has the same 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 81 

character of severe simplicity as those of "Divina Excelsa' 3 
and S. Lorenzo the Deacon. 

22. St. Benedict gives the rule of the order to his disciple 
S. Maurus. The figure of an angel at the ear of the monk 
signifies the divine inspiration granted to St. Benedict. The 
drapery of the group is remarkably fine ; the kneeling dis- 
ciple is also a striking study ; but St. Benedict himself is 
unrefined, and wanting in elevation of character. 

23. A girl holding the head of a man, with the inscrip- 
tion, "Puella ferens." This girl has been supposed to be 
Salome, with the head of St. John the Baptist ; or Judith, 
as the saviour of her people from the rule of discord, with 
the head of Holofernes. The figure is finely draped. The 
head she bears is of the same unworthy type as those of 
SS. Peter and Paul. 

The statue, No. 6, that of the Archangel Michael, has 
not been mentioned. It is the work of a modern sculptor. 

Most of the ideas which underlie the design of the Foun- 
tain are to be found in two treatises by Dante, De Mon- 
archic* and II Convito — written some twenty or thirty 
years after it was made. Any dependence of one upon the 
other is entirely out of the question ; the recurrence simply 
shows that both the designer of the Fountain and Dante 
assumed the current speculation of the time. 

THE HALL OF THE CAMBIO 

[The hall of the Cambio and the chapel attached to it 
belong to the guild of the money-changers and bankers. 
The hall was used for the general purposes of the body, and 
specially for the trying of causes arising among its members ; 
hence the name given to it — the Udienza. The chapel was 
used for celebrating the religious festivals which concerned 
the guild. 

The guilds or colleges of the various trades and arts 
formed a most important item in the life of the Middle Ages. 
They were founded on ancient Roman custom, and they 
formed rallying-points for Latin civilisation in its contest 



82 PERUGIA 

with the barbarian invaders of Italy. Citizens and traders 
could only defend themselves against the descendants of 
Lombard and Frankish landowners by combination, and 
this took the form of guilds or arts. These became politi- 
cal, and where they were rich, as in Florence, they were 
the virtual rulers of the commonwealth. The full rights 
of citizenship could only be exercised through membership 
in one of them, and it was common for nobles to register 
themselves as members of one or other of the arts so that 
they might gain political influence ; indeed, so completely 
were ancient forms perverted, that in 1674 the colleges of 
the mercanzia (or merchants) and the Cambio only en- 
rolled members of the noble class. 

The "art" of the Cambio is mentioned in 1259, when its 
consuls took part as witnesses to a contract for the estab- 
lishment of a new mint. The first existing statutes of the 
college are dated in 1377. 

The guild of the money-changers was one of the most 
important in the town ; its members were officially con- 
cerned in such public functions as the oversight of the 
building of the Duomo and in the victualling of the city. 

In 1428 Pope Martin V. was asked to grant leave for the 
building of a new hall. His permission was necessary, 
as the proposed site was occupied by the Church of S. 
Giovanni del Mercato. It was not, however, until 1441 
that matters were arranged, and the building was not 
actually begun till 1452. 

Perugino began painting in the hall in 1499, and he is 
supposed to have finished in 1500, though the receipt for 
payment was not given until 1507. The paintings in the 
chapel are generally assigned to the years 15 15-15 19. 

The design of the frescoes in the Sala del Cambio has 
been attributed to the humanist, Francesco Maturanzio, who 
was invited to Perugia in 1497. He taught in the town, 
and acted as secretary to the Priors up to the time of his 
death in 1518. Among the books left by him to the city 
was one containtng the inscriptions which appear on the 
walls, entitled, /// Audentia Cambia Penis Lie j the same 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 83 

book included the "offices" of Cicero ornamented with 
fourteenth-century miniatures. The fourth of these pictures 
showed the four cardinal virtues which are the four foun- 
tains of "Honestum," and they were illustrated by men 
famous for the practice of each particular virtue. Prudence 
is associated with Fabius Maximus ; Justice, with a Roman 
emperor and a French king ; Fortitude, with Hannibal and 
Mutius Scaevola holding his hand in the flames ; while 
Temperance has Fabius Maximus and Plato. 

In the hall of the Cambio the arrangement is not identi- 
cal, but it follows the same train of thought. Another 
example of a similar kind is found in one of the rooms 
in the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena, where a like connection 
between the moral virtues and ancient heroes is illustrated. 

The frescoes of the Sala del Cambio are interesting not 
only as being important works of Perugino and his scholars, 
but as embodying the ideas of the time on some of the 
most subtle and mysterious relations of humanity. 
They are not in any way peculiar in this respect, for art, 
from the time of the Catacombs, had been the medium of 
expression used by thinkers to make their conclusions popu- 
larly known. Such schemes of religious and philosophical 
thought were painted or carved not only in churches, they 
were common on secular monuments, as, for instance, on 
the fourteenth-century capitals of the ducal palace at Venice 
and in the sixteenth-century frescoes painted by Raphael 
in the halls of the palace at the Vatican. 

The hall is entered from the main street. It is badly 
lighted, so that a sunny forenoon should be chosen for a visit.] 

As we enter, two pictures face us 1 — (1) The Nativity; 
(2) The Transfiguration. They strike the keynote of 
the whole design. The problem to be solved was how the 
finite and transitory nature of man can be transformed 
into the infinite and perfect — how humanity can become 
again united to God. 

The answer given was that Christ, by sharing in mortality, 
enables man to share in Divinity. This was the teaching of 

1 See Plan I., p. 91. 



84 PERUGIA 

the mystery of the " Nativity," in which the finite is included 
in the infinite. The mystery of the " Transfiguration " com- 
pletes the idea ; it suggests that as Christ in His human 
condition reassumed the Divine, so man, in virtue of the 
mystery of the " Incarnation," has the same goal. 

The object of the paintings on the two side walls and the 
roof is to show how all the capacities of man and the history 
of humanity prepare the way for the manifestation of the 
Infinite and for the ultimate perfection of the race. On the 
right wall God reveals His will directly to the chosen 
people through the Prophets and Sibyls. On the left wall 
there is an epitome of the ancient life of Greece and Rome, 
showing how Pagan civilisation became by the light of 
the Cardinal Virtues an instrument of the Divine Will. 
On the roof the figures of the Seven Gods and Goddesses 
direct us to the perfection of the rational powers of the 
soul. If we regard the revelation from the Father Eternal 
to the chosen people as developing the love of God in 
mankind, and the Moral Virtues of pagan life as the source 
of man's love of his neighbour, we have these united with 
a cultivation of the intellectual faculties ; so that in the full 
exercise of the whole range of the powers of the soul man 
may become fitted to receive the manifestation of the 
Infinite, and be prepared once more to enter into com- 
munion with the Divine. 

We begin the examination of the pictures on the side 
walls with those on the left hand : — 

Prudence (3), with a beautiful four-sided mirror and a 
serpent twined round the handle. The inscription is — 

' ' Quid generi humano praestas, dea, die age. Praesto 
Ne facias quae mox facta dolere queas. 
Scrutari verum doceo, causasque latentes, 
Et per me poterit nil nisi rite geri." 

" ' Say, oh goddess ! what hast thou to offer to the human race, 
That thou shalt do naught for which thou oughtest to grieve as soon 

as done ? ' 
' I teach how to search out the Truth and hidden Right, 
And through me nothing can be done except fitly.' " 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 85 

Below Prudence stand three figures — 

(5) Fabius Maximus, the general, who by his prudence 
foiled the Carthaginians, subsequent to their victory at Lake 
Trasimeno in the Second Punic War. 

(6) Socrates, the philosopher, who laid the foundation 
for the theory of civil and moral virtue, the father of 
Greek wisdom, the perfection of Prudence in its widest 
aspect. 

(7) Numa Pompilius, the legendary founder of the institu- 
tions of the Roman state. 

Next to Prudence sits (4) Justice, with the attributes of 
the sword and scales. Her inscription is — 

" Si tribus his cunctos similes pia numina gignant, 
Nil toto sceleris, nil sit in orbe mali. 
Me culta, augentur populi belloque togaque : 
Et sine me, fuerant quae modo magna ruunt." 

" If the benignant gods were to bring forth all men like unto these, 
In the whole world there would be naught of guilt nor of evil. 
When I am observed nations wax great, both in war and in peace, 
And without me that which has been mighty falls into ruin." 

Below Justice stand the figures of — 

(8) Furius Camillus, the conqueror of Veii, and five times 
Dictator. A schoolmaster of Falerii having offered to 
betray the town to Camillus, was sent back in chains, and 
his fellow-citizens, in admiration of the justice of the Roman, 
surrendered to him. 

(9) Pittacus, ruled Mytilene for ten years, and when order 
was restored and established by his good government, he 
voluntarily resigned. 

(10) Trajan, who heard the prayer of the widow. A 
falcon belonging to the son of the Emperor killed a fowl 
belonging to the widow ; her son strangled the falcon and 
was killed by the Prince. At the prayer of the widow 
Trajan heard her cause, and ordained that the Prince, his 
son, should die or become as a son to the widow. 



86 PERUGIA 

The next Virtue is Fortitude (n). She has a shield 
and mace. The inscription is — 

" Cedere cuncta meis pulsa et disjecta lacertis 
Magna satis fuerint tres documenta viri. 
Nil ego pro patria timeo, charisque propinquis ; 
Quaeque alios terret, mors mihi grata venit." 

"Three men are mighty proofs enough, that all things yield, 
driven back, and cast down by my arms. I fear nothing for 
fatherland, nor for dear kindred, and Death that frightens others 
to me is welcome." 

Under Fortitude stand — 

(13) L. Sicinius Dentatus, a Roman who is said to have 
fought 120 battles, and to have had the scars of forty-five 
wounds on the front of his body. 

(14) Leonidas, the King of Sparta, who defended the pass 
of Thermopylae against the Persians. 

(15) Horatius Codes, the defender of Rome against the 
Etruscan army under Porsenna. By his defence of the 
bridge across the Tiber, time was gained to destroy it, and 
so the city was saved. 

The last of the Virtues is Temperance (12). She mixes 
water with wine. The inscription is — 

"Die, dea, quae tibi vis? Mores rego pectoris aestus 
Tempero ; et his alios, cum volo, reddo pares. 
Me sequere, et qua te superes ratione docebo. 
Quid te quod valeas vincere majus erit ? " 

" ' Tell me, Goddess, what would you have?' ' I govern char- 
acter. I temper the passions of the heart. And when I will I 
make others like unto these. Follow me and I will teach thee in 
what fashion thou canst overcome thyself. What can be greater 
than to have power thyself to conquer?' " 

Under Temperance stand — 

(16) Publius Scipio, the conqueror of Spain and Carthage, 
who refused the office of Consul and Dictator for life which 
the people offered him. 

(17) Pericles, the Athenian statesman, who died without 
having had any personal gain from the state. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 87 

(18) Cincinnatus, who was appointed Dictator and taken 
from the plough, and after his term of office laid it down of 
his own accord. 

These philosophers and heroes of ancient Greece and 
Rome ranged under the moral virtues, make for us a mag- 
nificent synthesis of Pag3,n life, justifying the saying of 
Dante that " it must be evident, when we recall the lives of 
these and other divine citizens, that they could not have 
wrought so many wonderful deeds had not some light of 
the Divine Goodness been added to their own goodness of 
nature." 

The light of the Divine Goodness is, according to the 
design of these pictures, that of the Moral Virtues, and 
out of this grew the Roman Empire, founded not on force, 
but on Divine Reason. The great men of classical life were 
instruments wherein many a time the arm of God was seen 
to be present. This was made most clear when the earth 
was prepared for the birth of Christ by the universal peace 
which reigned in the world as the result of the power of 
the Roman Emperor. Christ chose to be born at a time 
when the ship of human fellowship was speeding to the due 
port. 

Thus the great men of Pagan times, on whose goodness 
was founded the Roman Empire, were preparing the world 
for the coming of Christ, though they lived only in the 
twilight of the moral virtues. 

Turning now to the wall on the right-hand side of the 
hall, the lunette in the bay farthest from the door (19) has 
a representation of the Father Eternal, holding the globe 
of the universe in his hand, and attended by angels. Below, 
in the position corresponding to the heroes of Greece and 
Rome, are six Lawgivers, Prophets, and Kings of the 
Hebrews, and six Sibyls — women who were supposed to 
have prophetic powers, and to have foreseen the coming of 
the Messiah. Beginning at the end farthest from the door 
they stand in the following order — 

(20) Isaiah. (22) Daniel. 

(21) Moses. (23) David. 



88 PERUGIA 

(24) Jeremiah. (28) Cumean Sibyl. 

(25) Solomon. (29) Libycan „ 

(26) Erythrean Sibyl. (30) Tiburtian „ 

(27) Persican „ (31) Delphican „ 

To these have been granted a direct inspiration and an 
insight more clear than that of the Pagans into the divine 
purpose. As the Empire of Rome prepared the way politi- 
cally, so these prophets and seers make ready the souls of 
men to receive the message of the new dispensation. 

Thus both the ancient civilisation of Greece and Rome 
and the nation of the Jews were divinely appointed fore- 
runners of the Messiah. 

The connecting link between the classical heroes and 
the Hebrew prophets is found in Cato, whose figure is 
painted beside the entrance door (not shown in the plan). 
He is to be regarded as the greatest of Pagans, the one who 
by the force of his moral nature approached most nearly to 
the light of the Gospel dispensation. According to Dante, 
Cato, although enjoying only the light of the cardinal virtues 
{Purg., i. 37) is the guardian of the island of Purgatory ; he 
receives the souls of the blessed and sets them on their way 
towards the circles of the mountain where they are cleansed 
from sin. He forms an exception to the rule that only those 
who have lived by faith can pass beyond the courts where 
Dante finds the rest of the virtuous heathen. 

The inscription at his feet is as follows — 

" Quisquis vel celebri facturus verba corona 
Surgis, vel populo reddere jura paras, 
Privatos pone affectus : cui pectora versant 
Aut amor aut odium, recta tenere nequit." 

" Whosoever risest to utter words possessing the illustrious crown, 
Or goest about to render justice to the people, 
Put away all private affections : For he whose heart is swayed 
Either by love or hate, may not stand for the right." 

The painting on the roof is decorative in character. 
Seven gods and goddesses appear among scrolls and orna- 
mental designs of unusual delicacy and verve. They are 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 89 

attributed to Perugino's pupils working from the master's 
designs. 

Over the pictures of the Nativity and the Transfiguration 
is Jupiter (41), Sagittarius and Pisces being on the wheels 
of his chariot. Over Fortitude and Temperance is Mars 
(40), with Aries and Cancer. Over Prudence and Justice is 
Mercury (37), with Gemini and Virgo. Over the Prophets 
and Sibyls is Saturn (41), with Capricorn and Aquarius. 
Over the judgment bench is Venus (38), with Taurus and 
Libra. Over the entrance is Luna (36), with Cancer. Over 
the centre is Apollo (39), with Leo. These symbols must 
be considered in their relation to the wall paintings. 

The earth was thought to be in the centre of the universe 
and round it circled a number of heavens, each impelled 
in its course by one of the choirs of angels. The choirs 
each had their appointed duty in relation to the manifesta- 
tion of some form of the divine will — and in this way the 
movement of each heaven took its part in the divine order 
of the universe. The heavens were associated with the 
sciences in the following way — 

(36) the heaven of Luna was associated with Grammar. 



(37) 


)) 


Mercury „ 


55 


Dialectic. 


(38) 


55 


Venus „ 


35 


Rhetoric. 


(39) 


55 


Apollo (the Sun) 


55 


Arithmetic. 


(40) 


53 


Mars „ 


55 


Music. 


(41) 


55 


Jupiter 


55 


Geometry. 


(42) 


5) 


Saturn „ 


53 


Astronomy. 



Thus these seven figures of gods and goddesses stand 
for the Trivium and Quadrivium; that is, for the Seven 
Sciences, which in mediaeval schemes of education train the 
mind and fit it for the further study of physics, moral philo- 
sophy, and theology (see Convito, ii. chaps, xiv. and xv.). 
We should therefore regard the paintings on the roof as 
indicating the method by which the divine will, acting 
through the movement of the heavens, enlightens the 
human mind intellectually. 



90 PERUGIA 

The bay nearest to the door on the right-hand side is 
occupied by the judgment-seat of the college (No. 35). 

Over this bench is a gilded figure of Justice (34) with 
globe and sword, guarded by a Perugian griffin on each 
side (32, 33). The inscription is — 

' * Caelos rego, inferis 
Impero, judico inter 
Mortales, ergo me colet." 

" I guide the heavens, 
I command hell, 
I judge among mortals, 
Therefore worship me." 

The intarsia work throughout the hall is worthy of study ; 
it is of the same period as the painting. 

On the pilaster of the left wall, between the two bays, 
there is a portrait of Perugino, painted by himself (43). It 
is the face of a strong, self-willed man of determined char- 
acter and of no great refinement. It leaves us wondering 
that such an one should have cared to paint the pasteboard 
heroes over his head. 

The inscription in connection with the portrait runs — 

' ' Perdita si fuerat, pingendi 
Hie rettulit artem : 
Si nusquam inventa est 
Hactenus, ipse dedit." 

*' If the art of painting had been lost, here it would have 
been found. If it had never been invented, he would have 
supplied it." 

Reviewing the monument as a whole we have in the 
pictures of the Nativity and the Transfiguration the 
passage of the Infinite into the Finite and the reas- 
sumption of the Infinite by that which had taken the 
form of the Finite. By the first process it becomes pos- 
sible for man to reach out towards the Divine, and by the 
second is set before us the true aim of man, viz., to join in 
the community of the Infinite. 

The rest of the pictures are devoted to showing how man 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 



9i 



is to be fitted for his final end. The will is rightly directed 
by the practice of the moral virtues and by direct inspira- 
tion from the Father Eternal, and the whole capacities of 




man are duly governed by a reasoning faculty, cultivated 
under the divine influence which is manifested in the Seven 
Liberal Arts. 
The Nativity is a good example of Perugino's work • 



92 PERUGIA 

a quiet dignity and solemnity pervades the picture. The 
angels singing " Gloria in Excelsis Deo," the mother in 
placid adoration, the shepherds kneeling with unaffected 
devotion, the beasts of the field resting in their stable, and 
the gracious landscape are all typical of the mystical 
harmony accompanying the union of the human and 
the divine — that mystery which is the object of reverent 
joyfulness to the whole creation. The Transfiguration 
has failed to inspire the painter. There is neither grace in 
the design nor charm in the colour. 

The figures of the Virtues are indifferent examples of the 
women Perugino was accustomed to paint. The Greek and 
Roman heroes arranged under them can only be regarded 
as a travesty of humanism. They have not life enough to 
simulate human beings ; they are not sufficiently informed 
by thought to constitute symbols in more than the name. 
The mincing and trifling air of these unrealities is equally 
removed from grace and from purpose. Cato himself (to 
the right of the entrance door) is hardly better than the 
rest ; any possible point that there might have been is 
effectually destroyed by the petty toy he wears on his 
head. 

The prophets and sibyls on the right wall are rather less 
grotesque than the heroes, but there is the same essential 
want of character, the same lack of artistic capacity, with a 
like weakness both of intellect and feeling. 

In spite of the comparative failure of some of the indi- 
vidual elements in the decoration of this little hall, it is a 
very fine example of what may be done to give character to 
a building. The intarsia of the panellings and the carving 
of the judicial bench combine with the colour on the walls 
and roof, so that the general effect is fine and worthy of 
the study of all who care for the grace and dignity of 
the surroundings of daily life. 

Chapel of the Sala del Cambio.— The chapel is entered 
from the Udienza. The paintings are attributed to Gian- 
nicola Manni (working 1493-1544), a pupil of Perugino, 
who is said to have painted under Andrea del Sarto (i486- 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 93 

1 531). They are usually dated in the years between 1515 
and 1 5 19. 

The altar-piece has in the centre a Baptism of Christ, 
and at the sides the Archangel Gabriel and Madonna in 
Annunciation. The paintings on the walls are concerned 
with the life of St. John the Baptist. To the left of the 
latter on the side wall is the Meeting of Mary and Elizabeth, 
and on the side wall to the right is the Nativity of the 
Baptist. The history is continued on the left wall with the 
Feast of Herod, and on the right wall opposite, the Baptist 
is beheaded. The under sides of the arches which span 
these two last pictures are decorated with a variety of small 
designs, including warriors in Roman armour, Christian 
virtues, episodes from the life of Christ and St. John the 
Baptist, David preparing to slay Goliath, and Judith and 
Holofernes. They are not of any importance as works of 
art, but they illustrate the catholicity of mind and taste 
resulting from the revival of classical learning. Another 
suggestion of this mingling of ideas may be found in the 
figures of the two sibyls— the Erythrean and the Libycan 
— painted over the arches. 

The paintings on the roof illustrate the general concep- 
tion, of which the paintings below are the particular 
application. On the walls and on the altar-piece we have 
the life of the Forerunner, the Annunciation of Messiah, 
and the Baptism which marks the beginning of the preach- 
ing of the Gospel. On the roof there is a generalisation of 
the source of the Gospel and the means by which it was 
preached and spread abroad throughout the whole world. 
In the centre of the roof is the Father Eternal, and imme- 
diately surrounding are the four writers of the Gospels, with 
St. Peter, the Apostle of the Jews, and St. Paul, the Apostle 
of the Gentiles. SS. Andrew and James complete this part 
of the design. The outer part of the picture contains the 
seven other Apostles, the four Doctors of the Latin Church, 
and the three Saints especially connected with the Christian 
faith in Perugia, viz., S. Lorenzo, S. Costanzo, and S. 
Ercolano. 



94 PERUGIA 

Round the seats are the following inscriptions. To the left — 
" Ite procul, moneo sacer est locus, ite profani." 
" Let the impious keep far off. I warn that the place is holy." 

To the right — 

" Hie nisi casta loqui sancta que verba nefas." 
" Here it is wrong to speak, unless with pure and holy words." 

The pictures in this chapel are interesting, as showing the 
development of Umbrian art among the followers of Peru- 
gino, otherwise they need not detain the visitor. There is a 
much finer example of the work of Giannicola Manni in the 
gallery. 

ART IN UMBRIA 

[Art in Umbria and in Tuscany had this much in common : 
it was a heritage from Etruscan ancestors. For the rest, the 
widely differing circumstances of the two provinces caused 
a marked divergence in development. 

Through Tuscany lay the highway of the nations ; its rich 
soil and many natural advantages led to the accumulation of 
wealth by a race keenly alive to every force that moved 
mankind. The high-lying valleys of Umbria, on the other 
hand, were, in the Middle Ages, cut off from contact with 
the great world by the mountain ranges surrounding them. 
There was no accumulation of wealth ; no great seats of 
learning were founded ; no politics other than those of their 
own towns closely affected them. This life, apart from the 
movements and interests of the age, shielded as it was from 
the temptations of material wealth and beyond the reach of 
the intellectual development of the times, led to a certain ex- 
clusiveness and exaltation of temper depending on a keen 
sensibility to emotion combined with a narrow mental 
horizon. Religious feeling, rather than philosophical habit, 
is a note of the higher type of the Umbrian mind. The 
problems of life appealed to men in their mystical and 
spiritual relations, rather than from an intellectual stand- 
point, while material and political interests, although keenly 
contested, were on too small a scale to fill the lives of a 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 95 

people who were naturally devout. We need not be sur- 
prised when we find Umbrian art aiming, not to suggest a 
situation, but to create a state of feeling. 

The great development of art in the valleys of the Apen- 
nines took place in the fifteenth century. There was, how- 
ever, a much earlier tradition in such towns as Gubbio, 
Fabriano, San Severino, and Camerino. 

In Gubbio a certain Oderigi, who is supposed to have 
died at the end of the thirteenth century, was of sufficient 
fame to be mentioned by Dante. There was also Guido 
Palmerucci, who lived on till nearly the middle of the 
fourteenth century, and is supposed to have painted in 
Gubbio, and to have been the master of Martini Nelli, 
the father of Ottaviano Nelli. To this latter master have 
been attributed frescoes in Gubbio and at Foligno. His 
period of activity lay within the first half of the fifteenth century. 

In San Severino a certain Giacomo and Lorenzo painted 
at the end of the fourteenth and the beginning of the fifteenth 
century, and another, Lorenzo the younger, supposed to 
have been the son of the elder Lorenzo, worked on until 1496. 

At Fabriano there lived Allegretto Nuzzi, recorded in 
the Florentine register in the year 1346. He has been 
regarded as the master of Gentile da Fabriano. If there 
was any relation it must have been one of general influence, 
as the supposed date of Gentile's birth, between 1360 and 
1370, is about the same as the time at which the elder 
painter probably died. Gentile da Fabriano was the 
greatest artist produced by these mountain towns up to the 
middle of the fifteenth century. He, however, neither lived 
nor painted much in Umbria, and his influence is to be 
looked for in other parts of Italy. 

From Camerino there came in the fifteenth century 
Giovanni Boccati. He is supposed to have worked on 
the traditions of Gubbio and San Severino, and also to 
have been under the influence of Piero della Francesca. 

We now come to the names of three artists who painted 
in the second half of the fifteenth century, and who were 
the immediate forerunners of the great masters of the Peru- 



96 PERUGIA 

gian school. They were Benedetto Bonfigli (1425-1496), 
Niccolo da Foligno (1430-1502), and Fiorenzo di Lorenzo 

(1441-1521). Like most Umbrian painters they each had 
a style distinctly their own, tempered and influenced never- 
theless by Florentine masters. 

There were in Tuscan art two distinct tendencies which 
affected the Umbrian masters. One was represented by 
painters like Lorenzo Monaco and Fra Angelico, the other 
by Paolo Ucello, Piero della Francesca, and Ant. Pollaiuolo. 
Speaking generally, the first represented the religious and 
monastic mind, while the latter represented the scientific 
school, the men who developed the art of perspective and of 
design. 

The influence of Fra Angelico passed into Umbria 
through his follower Benozzo Gozzoli (1420- 1498), a man 
more apt to transmit the outward form and manner than 
the essential spirit of the great Florentine Dominican. Ben- 
ozzo was employed at Montefalco in the year 1452, and it is 
supposed that he influenced all the three painters — Niccolo 
da Foligno, Benedetto Bonfigli, and Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. 

The influence of the scientific Tuscan school is supposed 
to have reached Umbria through Piero della Francesca 
(i4i6?-i492), Antonio Pollaiuolo (1429-149S), and their 
pupil and scholar Luca Signorelli (1 441-1523). 

The great period of Umbrian art, which in the middle of 
the fifteenth century was centred in Perugia, is connected 
with the names of Perugino (1 446-1 524) and Pinturicchio 
(1454-15 13) ; both of them are said to have been pupils of 
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo (1441-1521), who united in himself the 
two strains of Florentine teaching already noticed. 

The scholars, assistants, and imitators of Perugino include 
Eusebio di San Giorgio, Giannicola Manni, and Lo 
Spagna, who were painting during the last decade of the 
fifteenth century and throughout the first quarter of the 
sixteenth ; Manni indeed was working until 1544. 

Raphael when a youth worked in the shop of Perugino, 
and learned some of the school manner of his master ; it 
had, however, no more than a passing influence. The 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 97 

history of the great painter belongs to Florence and not to 
Umbria, although by birth and in some degree by early 
education he is more nearly connected with the latter than 
the former school. 

Of all the Umbrian masters with which we are concerned, 
Perugino is the most representative and the most widely 
known. In spite of the many and various influences 
amongst which he lived, he always maintained an individual 
style, characteristic in many ways of local tradition, and 
having a wide influence amongst local artists. In charm 
of colour, in spaciousness of design, and in the beauty of 
his landscapes, he has few rivals among the fifteenth- 
century painters of any school. He has left some portraits 
which have greatly impressed competent critics (see Dr. 
Williamson's "Perugino," p. 85), and according to a con- 
temporary, " his faces have an air of the most angelic sweet- 
ness" (quoted by Dr. Williamson, p. 40). 

His good qualities had, however, serious drawbacks ; his 
faces may have the air of angelic sweetness, and yet it is 
impossible to forget that they are often vapid, and that the 
sweetness degenerates into sentimentality. The fantastic 
and vacuous figures which do duty for the heroes of Greece 
and Rome in the Sala del Cambio, compare poorly with 
contemporaneous work such as that of Mantegna, and the 
imponderable symbols in the Baptism (No. 11, Sala X.) at 
Perugia, contrast strangely with the virile forms of Signorelli 
at Orvieto. 

Perugino was not a dramatist ; indeed, there is in his work 
a static quality marking it off from the vigorous conceptions 
of Florentine masters. A picture of the Baptism of Christ 
at Foligno illustrates this Umbrian passivity. Let us 
compare it with the same subject as treated by Fra 
Angelico in one of the cells at San Marco in Florence. 
At Foligno, Christ and the Baptist stand in a conventional 
pose, angels tread the air in a manner common to the 
school, above in a semicircle the Father Eternal holds a 
globe, and is in the act of blessing. There is over all a 
sentimental grace, a peacefulness and a devotional atmos- 

G 



98 PERUGIA 

phere not without its charm. Far different is the fresco at 
San Marco. Here is the solemn figure of Christ in awed 
reverence ; here is the eager, nay fierce action of the ascetic 
preacher of repentance ; instead of the golden fields and the 
feathery trees of the Umbrian, there is a wild scene in the 
desert. The subject has stirred the soul of Fra Angelico to 
its depths, while Perugino is moved to nothing more than a 
decently reverential feeling and a well-restrained pleasure 
in an interesting event set in a charming landscape. 

We must not, however, forget that there is in the art of 
Perugino a positive side, of value and interest for its 
characteristic relation to the condition of Umbrian life. 
Besides the capacity for rendering the ideal quality of wide 
and gracious landscape, in addition to a sense for the imagi- 
native and poetical value of colour, Perugino at his best has 
the gift of expressing delicate and refined feeling with a 
certainty of perception that distinguishes him from the more 
vigorously intellectual Florentines, and from the worldliness 
of the Venetians. With all his defects and limitations he 
has added a great sum of beauty to the possession of man- 
kind, and the traveller will often find his eyes wandering 
from the work of greater masters to the charming colour 
and the lovely landscapes which recall the shores of Lake 
Trasimeno and the sunlit valleys of the Apennines. 

If we consider the history of Umbrian art as a whole we 
shall see that there was no serious attempt to deal with 
the nude, nor was there any development of portraiture. 
No Umbrian painter devoted his art to schemes of philo- 
sophy and religion such as we find in the Spanish chapel at 
Florence, with the possible exception of Perugino in the 
Sala del Cambio. Life was never portrayed in terms of 
classical culture as the Paduan painters tried to do. There 
is hardly any of that somewhat vulgar feeling for realism 
which prompted Ghirlandajo to paint the story of St. John 
the Baptist as if the child were a member of the noble family 
of the Tornabuoni. Nor is the history of Umbria set forth in 
any series of pictures such as the Venetians delighted to paint, 
recording their victories and their lordship over many lands. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 99 

If such work as that of Perugino in the Sala del Cambio, 
or that of Pinturicchio in Rome or at Siena, is held to be an 
exception, it will still remain true that the aim of the school 
is to express a simple and pious devotion, a tender and 
religious feeling. 

It must also be noted that there was no school of Um- 
brian sculpture. There are in the Umbrian cities several 
monuments, such as the fountain at Perugia, the facade of 
the Duomo at Orvieto, and the reliefs on San Bernardino 
at Perugia, which rank each in their own way among the 
great works of Italian sculptors. These Tuscan master- 
pieces stirred up no movement among native artists, and 
there was practically no Umbrian school of sculpture. 
With all its limitations Umbrian art remains to us as a 
valuable record of Umbrian life. It is less affected 
than the art of the great centres, by currents of feeling 
and modes of thought, which lost their note of individuality 
by the fact that they belonged to the world at large, and 
not to Tuscans or Venetians or Lombards only. 

In the art of these secluded valleys we reach down to 
the true character of the people from which St. Francis 
sprang, and we can well forgive its limitations in return 
for the intimate picture of primitive character un- 
affected by the stir and worry of the great world.] 

THE PICTURE GALLERY 

[The gallery is mainly a collection of the work of Peru- 
gian painters of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 
centering round Perugino (1446-1528) as the most accom- 
plished member of the school. 

The principal masters who preceded Perugino were 
Bonfigli (1425-1496) and Fiorenzo di Lorenzo (1440-1521). 
The principal disciples and successors of Perugino as we 
see them here were Lo Spagno (working before 1 503, died 
about 1530), Eusebio di San Giorgio (working in 1492, 
still living in 1527), Sinibaldo Ibi (living in 1527), Gian- 
nicola Manni (died in Perugia in 1 544), Domenico Alfani 
! LofC. 



ioo PERUGIA 

(born in 1483, and living in 1553), and his son, Orazio 
Alfani, who died in 1583. 

In addition to the purely Perugian pictures there is a 
room with a number of examples by the Sienese painter, 
Taddeo Bartolo (1363-1422), who influenced Umbrian 
painting. There is also a small room with some frag- 
ments by Fra Angelico (1387-1455), and a painting by 
Piero della Francesca (1416-? 1492). 

Fra Angelico influenced the forms of Umbrian art 
through his pupil, Benozzo Gozzoli (1420-1498), while 
Piero della Francesca had a dominant influence through 
his own teaching and that of his disciples, such as Luca 
Signorelli (1 442-1 523). 

We begin with the rooms which contain examples illus- 
trative of the masters of other schools who influenced 
Umbrian painters. 

On entering the gallery we pass through a large hall 
hung with pictures of no importance, and go on to the 
Sala dei Cimelii (Sala I.). It contains a number of panels, 
unimportant in themselves, but interesting as showing the 
state of art in the thirteenth century. Some of these 
early pictures are dated, and this enables us to estimate 
the relative position of painting and sculpture ; for instance, 
the crucifix attributed to Margaritone was painted (if the 
date be accepted) within ten years of the time when the 
sculpture on the fountain was executed. 

A few very small pictures (10 and 11) are attributed to 
G-iunta Pisano, a name usually given to the painter who 
is supposed to have begun the painting in San Francesco 
at Assisi. 

Other pictures are attributed to early Sienese painters 
(note the panel No. 1), and a large crucifix already men- 
tioned is attributed to Margaritone of Arezzo ,• the date 
painted on the panel is that of 1272. Above the usual 
inscription placed over the head of Christ is Madonna, 
painted with her hands spread out in prayer, and attended 
by two angels. In a circle above this figure of Madonna 
is Christ holding a book with part of the inscription visible : 



THE PICTURE GALLERY 101 

"Ego sum al . . . ." At the foot of the cross is a small 
kneeling St. Francis. The figure of Christ is marked by 
the same strangely defined anatomy as we see in the early 
Tuscan examples in the long gallery of the Uffizzi. Those 
who know the picture by Margaritone in the English 
National Gallery will find little resemblance to it in this 
work. 

For the present we pass through the Cappella del Bonfigli 
and the Saia degli Stacchi to the Sala di Taddeo Bartoli 
(Sala IV.). 

The principal pictures here belong to the Sienese school ; 
a glance round the room gives an impression of abundant 
and rich decoration, rightly subdued to its purpose, of 
beautiful and harmonious colour, of graceful and refined 
form, and of a grave, reverend, and meditative attitude. 
Madonnas and saints look out from their gilt backgrounds 
as types of abstract qualities rather than as men and 
women : it is the preaching of repentance (see No. 9) that 
we are concerned with, not the man ; it is the constancy of 
the martyrs (see No. 22), not the women who suffered; it is 
divine love, not Madonna the woman, who sits with the babe 
on her knee ; it is the life of self-denial (see No. 5), not the 
mendicant who preached it, that stands before us. The 
Umbrian painters of the fifteenth century were influenced 
by these Sienese examples, and a study of the pictures in 
this room will help to unravel some of the problems which 
confront us in the rooms which follow. 

No. 5, by Taddeo Bartolo (1 363-1422). St. Francis in the 
centre ; to the left, St. Antony of Padua and S. Ercolano ; to 
the right, St. Louis of Toulouse and S. Costanzo. St. Francis 
is surrounded by a glory of cherubim whose red wings are 
typical of divine love ; he stands upon the forms of Pride, 
Lust, and Avarice — the last-named vice is figured by a nun 
clinging to a purse. St. Louis of Toulouse, as the eldest son 
of Charles the Lame, was heir to the crown of Naples ; the 
crown which he abjured lies at his feet. As a member of the 
House of France he wears over the habit of the brethren a 
robe embroidered with lilies. The painter, though proclaim- 



109 PERUGIA 

ing the conquest over the things of this lite, has not boon 
able to resist the temptation to sot his theme m a most 
lovely scheme Of colour and decoration. 

No. 9, by Taddeo Bartolo. A crowned Madonna with a 
gorgeously robed Child is attended by St» John the baptist 
and St. Mary Magdalen to the left, and St. John the Evan- 
gelist and St. Catherine to the right. We note the supreme 
skill of the Sienese school in decoration, and their love of 
magnificent yet strictly harmonious colour. 

No. 10, by Taddeo Bartolo. The Descent of the Holy 
Spirit. This is an awkward and ungraceful composition ; 
the problems of perspective and foreshortening have been 
beyond the grasp of the painter in this example. 

No. 14, attributed to Pietro da Orvieto, and originally in 

.cristy of S. Son eve, is not important. We may remark 

that St. Benedict is here robed in white as the patriarch o\ 

all Benedictines, reformed and otherwise, instead of in black, 

the habit of the original order. 

No. 22 is a most lovely and graceful composition. In the 
centre Madonna and Child attended by angels rest on 
clouds ; to the right St. Catherine of Alexandria receives the 
ring in token of her mystic union with Christ ; to the left 
another virgin martyr, St. Agnes, bears the Lamb in her 
bosom : between these two saints kneels the small figure of 
Queen Elizabeth of Hungary with her lap full of roses. To 
the right of the central picture stand the two bishops, SS. 
Ercolano and Costanzo, and to the left S. Antonio ot Padua 
and St. Louis of Toulouse with St. John the Evangelist. 
Over these groups arc two small scenes : to the left St. 
Francis receives the Stigmata, and to the right St. Jerome 
has a vision o( the cross two of the Fathers of the Desert 
being in the background. In the predella there is, to the 
right, the Baptism of Christ, to the left the three Maries 
visit the tomb, in the centre there is a scene probably from 
the Martyrdom of St. Agnes, and St. Elizabeth receives the 
sick. 

It is difficult to realise that this beautiful panel has for 
its idea, the theme of self-abnegation and martyrdom as the 



THE PICTURE GALLERY 103 

way to reach the divine illumination granted to St Catherine, 
to St Jerome, and St. Francis. It is a summation of the 
monastic ideal, leading by the way of Faith ('typified by the 
white robe of St. Agnes;, Hope (shadowed in the ; 
robe of St Catherine), and Love (figured in the glowing red 
of the cherubim) to thai union with the divine, of which the 
mystical union of the child with St. Catherine, is a symbol. 

IALA V. 

The Sala del Angehco opens out of the Sala di Taddeo 
iiartolo, to the side. The fragments by Angehco and the 
picture attributed to Piero della Francesca are not of much 
importance, but they are of interest on account of the influence 
which these masters had on the Umbrian school. 

No. 21, by Piero della Francesca (1416-? 1492), is a strik- 
ing work. In the upper part of the picture is an Annuncia- 
tion, with a background showing the master's love of effects 
in perspective ; below, Madonna and Child are enthroned ; 
to the left stand St. John the Baptist and probably S. Antonio 
of Padua ; to the right St. Francis and Queen Elizabeth with 
her lap full of roses ; the remains of the predella have figures 
of SS. Agatha and Chiara. The background of the picture 
has once been gilt, but the picture has suffered much, and 
there is now no charm of colour ; it is, however, impossible 
to resist the solemn and reverential dignity of the composi- 
tion and the masculine strength informing the whole, in 
striking contrast to the sentimental and feminine graces of 
the Umbrian ma 

The Umbrian Masters.— We begin the study of the 
Umbrian pictures in the Sala del IJonfigli (Sala VI.) with 
No. 19, a large panel painted by Giovanni Boccati of 
Camerino (working in Perugia 1444-1447), who is reputed 
to have been the master of Bonfigli ; it is dated 1447. 
Madonna and Child are enthroned in a beautiful garden 
that may well be that of Paradise, ranked around them are 
childish angels who sing with vigour, to the left raised on 
steps stand the two doctors, SS. Ambrose and Jerome, and 



104 PERUGIA 

to the right the two other doctors, St. Augustine and St. 
Gregory the Great — in the foreground SS. Dominic and 
Francis present members of the Confraternity. It is a 
simple picture with a limited range of interest. Madonna is 
the least satisfactory part of it ; she has neither character 
nor expression, and like Madonna in No. 16, also by Boccati, 
is merely a lay figure necessary to the composition. We 
may note a certain skill in using colour, the blue robe of 
Madonna, the red robes of SS. Jerome and Augustine, the 
black and grey habits of the mendicants, and the golden 
hair of the angels stand out with effect from the deep green 
of the celestial rose arbour, the masses of colour in the pave- 
ment add character to the whole. There is as yet no 
spacious composition, the design is that of the enclosed 
garden. 

We now return to the Cappella del Bonfigli to begin the 
examination of Boccati's pupil, Benedetto Bonfigli. In 
1454 he was employed by the Priors to paint a part of their 
chapel. The work was to be judged, and the payment for 
it awarded, by one of the three artists, Fra Angelico, Dom- 
enico Veneziano, and Fra Filippo Lippi. The decision 
was given by the last-named in 1461 ; he was pleased with 
the frescoes, and advised that Bonfigli should be employed 
to paint the rest of the chapel, and that for the work 400 
Florentine florins should be paid. This second part went 
on so slowly that when Bonfigli came to make his will in 
1496, he set apart a certain sum for finishing it, in case he 
were unable to do so. 

The pictures in the chapel begin with the acts of St. Louis 
of Toulouse, and go on with the acts of S. Ercolano. 
St. Louis of Toulouse was the eldest son of Charles the 
Lame, King of Naples, and grand-nephew of St. Louis IX., 
King of France. In his boyhood he was imprisoned as 
a hostage for his father, and when he was free he renounced 
his rights to the crown of Naples, and joined the brethren 
of St. Francis. He was soon after appointed Archbishop 
of Toulouse. The series of pictures begins with his con- 
secration (No. 1). He stands before the Pope in his grey 



THE PICTURE GALLERY 105 

habit. His single-hearted devotion seems for a moment 
to have aroused some sense of human dignity and worth 
in the mind of Bonfigli. Next to the consecration there is 
(No. 2) the story of how a merchant, who had lost a bag of 
money at sea, finds it in the body of a fish by the interven- 
tion of St. Louis. The fresco facing the window (No. 4) shows 
us the funeral service for the young archbishop. He lies on 
the bier, in the Franciscan habit, covered with a robe em- 
bossed with the lilies of France. A bishop and a number 
of brethren recite the service ; their figures are short and 
undistinguished, their faces are little more than caricatures 
of common types. The scene is set in a church shown in 
section, and with no attempt at pictorial effect. The only 
sign of inspiration in this series, is in the young monk who 
awaits consecration, and it seems clear that Fra Filippo's 
judgment must have been guided rather by care for the 
feelings of a brother painter than by the canon of merit. 

The rest of the series is concerned with S. Ercolano. In 
the sixth century Justinian was ruling in Constantinople as 
emperor of the Roman world. He had capable servants 
in the persons of Belisarius and Narses, and he determined 
to reassert the imperial power in Italy, where the Gothic 
kings had ruled for half a century. The siege of Perugia 
was one of the incidents in the struggle that followed. 
S. Ercolano, the bishop, defended the town in the im- 
perial interest, and though Narses was finally successful, 
in this particular case it is the Goth who prevails. Perugia 
was very short of food, and so that he might deceive the 
enemy, the bishop caused an ox to be fed with the last 
grain in the town, and then thrown over the walls. Traitor- 
ously, or by misadventure, the plan was frustrated by a 
young clerk. The scene of fresco No. 5 is laid in the 
Piazza of S. Ercolano, where the ox lies dead. Before the 
king stands the clerk, and we see that the Goths have been 
undeceived, for they attack vigorously. 

According to St. Gregory, the death of S. Ercolano hap- 
pened in 552. The bishop who had encouraged and advised 
the people was flayed, decapitated, and thrown from the 



io6 PERUGIA 

walls. Some devout persons found the body, and beside 
it that of a dead child, and they were buried together. 
Forty days afterwards the Perugians were ordered to re- 
turn to their homes, so they took up the body of their 
pastor, which they found uncorrupt, and with no sign of 
flaying, while the body of the child was decayed. The 
head of the saint joined itself to the body, and the child, 
by the grace of God, when laid beside the body of the saint, 
came back to life and lived for seven years. 

The interest of these frescoes by Bonfigli consists mainly 
in incidental illustration of the habits and dress of the time, 
and particularly of the appearance of the town of Perugia in 
the fifteenth century. 

We now return to the Sala del Bonfigli (Sala VI.), where 
we have already seen the panel by his master, Giovanni 
Boccati. The most famous picture by Bonfigli is No. 13, 
Madonna and Child, originally in the Church of S. Dom- 
enico. The panel has been much damaged, and yet it 
remains one of the most charming pictures in the gallery. 
Madonna sits in adoration of the Child, who rests upon 
her knee. She is a nicely nurtured, sweetly natured woman, 
without any evidence of spiritual vocation or force of char- 
acter. The Child shows unmistakably the influence of Fra 
Angelico filtered through Benozzo Gozzoli, while the four 
little rose-crowned angels below, who play accompaniments 
to their own songs, are modelled directly on the types of 
Benozzo. 

No. 7, Annunciation by Bonfigli, is remarkable for 
the introduction of St. Luke with his symbol between the 
angel and Madonna. He sits with a calm, detached air, 
apparently writing down the history of the event which 
he witnesses. The picture comes from the College of the 
Notaries, and this may account for the careful record which 
is being made. We may remark the Archangel Gabriel's 
costume and its fashionable propriety, in contrast to the 
simplicity of earlier times. 

10. Adoration of the Magi, by Bonfigli. This is a 
devotional, not a historical representation of the scene, which 



THE PICTURE GALLERY 107 

is regarded as the calling of the Gentiles. Madonna has 
to the right and left St. Nicholas ot Bari and St. John the 
Baptist. In the luxurious and overcrowded accessories, we 
are reminded of the panel painted by Gentile da Fabriano 
(1360-70-1440). There is no true sense of design in the 
picture. The principal figures form a semicircle, with the 
adoration of the oldest king as the central point ; but the 
effect is lost owing to an ill-managed crowd in the back- 
ground. We may note the rudimentary landscape and the 
curious variety and elaboration of costume. St. Joseph and 
some of the bystanders show the same childishly common 
type that we see in the frescoes of the chapel. Madonna is 
said to be a portrait of the painter's sister. 

In the next room (VII.), the Sala di Bernardino di 
Mariotto, No. 4 is another characteristic example of Bon- 
figli. Madonna, with the child on her knee, forms the 
centre. Above are four rose-crowned angels. Below, and 
to the right, stand St. Francis and S. Bernardino ; to the left, 
St. Jerome and St. Thomas Aquinas. There is a marked 
likeness between Madonna in the picture and in No. 13, 
Room VI. The love of decoration comes out in the curtain 
and in the frieze which divides the celestial and terrestrial 
groups. St. Thomas Aquinas has in his hand an open book, 
with an inscription saying, that as Thomas has written 
well so he will be rewarded. This reward comes to him 
as illumination from the Sun of Righteousness. 

The Gonfalone, No. 10, in this room, painted by Bonfigli, 
is noticed in connection with other pictures of this class in 
Perugia. 

Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9, Angels by Bonfigli. 7 and 9 come from 
S. Francesco del Prato ; all of these panels have, no doubt, 
formed parts of a large composition. These angels bear 
the instruments of the Passion, and the attempt to express 
the appropriate feeling is not successful. 

Nos. 11, 13, 16, and 17, Angels by Bonfigli, are among 
the most pleasing examples of his work. They are graceful 
figures bearing baskets of roses and with garlands, which 
however suggest head-dresses rather than flowers of the 



PERUGIA 

celestial paradise. The influence of Benozzo is clearly dis- 
cernible. 

We now turn to the work of Fiorenzo di Lorenzo (1440- 
1521), who may have been a pupil of Benozzo GozzoH, but 

who was influenced by Florentine teaching, of which Botti- 
celli is the most illustrious example. We pass from the 
feeble prettiness of Bonfigli to an art of stronger character. 
The men and women have force and articulation of frame : 
their obtuse and rather heavy faces are not, it is true, 
beautiful, but they bespeak character. The sense of colour 
is undeveloped, and it would be useless to pretend that the 
work of Fiorenzo, as we see it in this gallery, represents any 
high standard of genius. His pictures are nevertheless the 
work of a man of sound parts and of some capacity, and as 
the supposed master of Perugino (1446-1524) he demands 
careful attention. 

Sala VIII. 

No. 4. Adoration of the Magi, attributed to Fiorenzo di 
Lorenzo, and originally in the Church of Sta. Maria Nuova. 
The picture as we see it is dark and heavy in colour, and with 
no striking quality of design. It might pass unnoticed but 
for Madonna — a type that does not appear in any other 
example of the master. 

No. 2, the Nativity, shows the babe lying on the ground 
in fifteenth-century fashion. St. Joseph is made to take a 
prominent position, he is indeed the central figure ; his robe 
is of a raw yellow colour, distinctly inharmonious, while his 
expression has a curious mixture of self-righteousness, and 
that form of humility which is apt to strike an onlooker as 
spiritual pride. The group of kneeling shepherds to the 
left is good. The angels who hail the event are charming, 
and recall Florentine tradition ; they fill the space of the 
stable, which Perugino leaves open that we may see his 
lovely distances. The landscape here is strangely con- 
structed, upright rocks bear small tablelands on which 
shepherds tend their flocks ; it adds neither grace nor 
beauty to the picture. 



THE PICTURE GALLERY 109 

No. 1 is a detached fresco from the Church of S. Giorgio, 
not now in existence. It represents the mystical marriage 
of St. Catherine of Alexandria, a graceful figure, reserved 
and dignified. She holds the palm of martyrdom and 
victory in one hand, the other being held out to receive the 
ring from the child who stands on his mother's knee. On 
the other side of Madonna stands St. Nicholas of Bari with 
a Lag of money — a symbol of his exceeding charity. He 
has a beneficent and fatherly expression of great dignity. 
The fresco is damaged, but it gives us a good impression of 
the capacity of Fiorenzo. 

No. 43, a large panel by Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. Madonna 
and Child rest on clouds ; seraphim and cherubim kneel at 
the feet of Madonna ; to the left stand SS. Peter and 
Benedict ; to the right St. John the Evangelist (with book 
and pen;, and a Franciscan. St. Peter has the self-righteous 
expression noticed in the Nativity (No. 2) to an odious 
degree. The best figure is that of the Franciscan, who 
looks out with an air of reverend simplicity. The colour is 
dull and heavy, and the figures stand against the gilding in 
a flat, unsuggestive way. 

Sala IX. 

In the Gabinetto di Fiorenzo di Lorenzo the altar- 
piece, No. 10, merits notice for the gracious presence of 
Sta. Mustiola, who stands at the left of the picture. She is 
the patroness of Chiusi, and was martyred under Aurelian. 
Madonna and Child, with two graceful angels, are attended 
to the right by SS. Peter and Francis, and to the left by 
S. Andrea and Sta. Mustiola. The picture has a gilt back- 
ground ; the colour is harsh and strong in contrasts, the raw 
yellow of the Nativity (No. 2, Sala VIII.) reappearing here. 

No. 16, Madonna and Child, by Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, sug- 
gests some of the school pictures painted by the followers of 
Botticelli ; we may note the peculiar face of the Child, 
the expression of the angels and their arrangement in 
the picture, also the bearing of Madonna. It is not a 
beautiful picture, but it is interesting as showing a contact 



no PERUGIA 

with Florence, which unfortunately was to bear so little fruit 
among Umbrian masters. 

There are in this room a number of sketches, some of 
them unfinished, attributed to Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. They 
describe miracles worked by S. Bernardino. We see the 
manners and customs of the time reported by an eye-witness. 
The drawings suggest the possession of that faculty which 
found its full expression in the work of Pinturicchio in the 
Piccolomini library at Siena. 

Perugino (1446-1523) has by common consent been ac- 
cepted as the most facile and popular painter of the Umbrian 
school. He was born at Cittk della Pieve, a small hill-set 
town near the railway that runs between Chiusi and Orvieto. 
He came to Perugia to learn the art of painting, and became 
the pupil of Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. Besides his own ability 
as a painter Perugino owes his fame to the fact that in his 
shop Raphael worked as a youth. With the possible excep- 
tion of the frescoes in the Sala del Cambio, there is now 
none of Perugino's best work in Perugia ; nevertheless, there 
are a number of fairly characteristic examples in the picture 
gallery, and of these the following should be noticed : — 



Sala VIII. 


,24. 


Coronation of the Virgin. 


Sala X. 


11. 


Baptism of Christ. 


55 


20. 


The Nativity. 


5J 


25. 


The Crucifixion. 


Sala XL, 


2. 


The Transfiguration. 


jj 


6. 


Madonna and Child. 


»5 


15. 


Madonna and Child with Saints 


Sala XIII. 


3i- 


The Nativity. 



The Coronation of the Virgin (No. 24, Sala VIII.) is part 
of the same altar-piece as the Crucifixion (No. 25, Sala X.). 
It was originally in S. Francesco-al- Monte. The picture is 
much damaged. Dr. Williamson, in his life of Perugino, 
regards it as being the work of the master only so far as the 
design goes. It is certainly not successful. There is an 
indeterminate rendering of form and a weakness of senti- 



THE PICTURE GALLERY in 

merit, unredeemed by any charm of colour or breadth and 
simplicity in design. 

No. 1 1, in Sala X., Baptism of Christ, is a better example. 
It was originally part of the altar-piece of S. Agostino, 
which Perugino contracted to paint in 1502, but did not 
finish for many years. We may note Umbrian limitation in 
the rendering of the nude, also the static condition of the 
design — nothing moves. Even the dove of the Holy Spirit, 
which usually sweeps down on the scene with something of 
power, is here set in a mechanically formed halo, able to do 
nothing more than spread its wings within its narrow bounds. 
The Baptist, though he may be in harmony with the rest of 
the picture, is scarcely the preacher of repentance, the fore- 
runner and martyr. Such positive quality as he has expends 
itself in a vain attempt to feel what he thinks ought to be the 
feeling appropriate to the occasion. There is a painful air 
of vacuous self-consciousness about the whole picture. 

No. 20, Sala X., Nativity, is also a part of the S. Agostino 
altar-piece. The Child lies on the ground, shepherds kneel 
reverently in the background, two angels with delicately 
tinted robes appear in the sky, and between them the dove 
of the Holy Spirit hovers in a glory of bright rays. The 
stable is rendered by an open building, left without any 
detail so that we may see the simple but effective landscape. 
The picture is a harmony having no relation to any subject 
or to any fact ; it is dependent on a subtle balance of colour, 
on a flexile immobility of form, on a spaciousness of compo- 
sition. Delicate in all its qualities, and with an air of grace 
and refinement, it attains within its own limitations a certain 
success — but the limitations are narrow and the conventions 
of the picture react upon the slighter and less permanent of 
human emotions. 

No. 25, Sala X., the Crucifixion. This was part of the 
same altar-piece as No. 24, Sala VIII. The figure of Christ, 
modelled in wood, hangs on a wooden cross, and for this 
sculpture Perugino painted a background. Madonna and 
St. John stand at the sides of the cross, St. Mary Magdalene 
and St. Francis kneel in the foreground. Two angels float 



112 PERUGIA 

in the air and catch the blood that drops from the hands. 
The physical manifestations at the time of the Crucifixion 
are indicated by a shining sun to the left and a darkened 
one to the right. Madonna wears an air of pensive and 
resigned melancholy. St. John displays a type of feminine 
weakness unusual even for Perugino. Penitence and Humi- 
lity are but poorly represented in the Magdalene and St. 
Francis. It cannot be said that the result justifies this com- 
bination of sculpture and painting. 

In the hall of Pinturicchio (Sala XI.) there are two pictures 
which illustrate the capacity of Perugino as a colourist al- 
most at his best and his worst. The ashy tones of No. 1 5 
and the depth and glow of No. 6 are in strong contrast. 
This latter picture shows the members of the Confraternity 
of St. Peter Martyr kneeling in the background, while two 
angels float in adoration over the crowned Madonna. 

No. 2, Sala XL, the Transfiguration, is a large picture, 
striking alike for its good qualities and its defects. The effect 
of suffused light, the lovely landscape, and the colour are fine, 
but the conception of the Christ is weak and poor, the wit- 
nesses of the mystery are uninteresting, and the detail of the 
mandorla, with its trifling cherub heads, causes us to man-el 
how such a thing could be imagined by any one with a sense 
of artistic fitness. 

The last picture by Perugino which we have to notice is 
a detached fresco, No. 31, in the Sala della Scuola del Peru- 
gino (Sala XIII.). It comes from the Church of S. Francesco- 
ai-Monte. This is supposed to have been one of his latest 
works. It is graceful and refined ; there is a tender sense 
of devout adoration in the kneeling figures, interfered with 
by no obtrusive or indifferent detail. Madonna and the 
shepherd next to her are examples of the Umbrian school 
at its best. It shows that Perugino had not lost his power 
of creating beautiful pictures even in the latest years of a 
long life. 

Before dealing with the followers of Perugino we must 
consider an example of the work of Pinturicchio (1454- 
1 5 1 3), who may be regarded as an equal rather than as a 



THE PICTURE GALLERY 113 

scholar or follower. Pinturicchio had an independent and 
individual standpoint, which he maintained to the end in 
spite of the influences surrounding him in Rome and Siena, 
where he spent a large part of his life. He is represented 
in the gallery by the altar-piece, No. 10 in Sala XL, com- 
plete in all its parts. The picture is pleasing in colour, and 
the Angel of the Annunciation is a beautiful figure with a 
fine sense of arrested motion; otherwise the interest is mainly 
in the ideas which are set forth. The redemption of man is 
the theme. This is rendered possible by the Incarnation: 
and the history of this event is detailed in its beginning, in 
the Annunciation; in its manifestation, in the Child who sits 
on His mother's knee; in its completion, in the sacrifice fore- 
shadowed by the Cross which the child Baptist gives to the 
child Christ; and in its fruition, in the Resurrection from the 
tomb. Over the whole is the dove of the Holy Spirit. 
The note of the picture is struck in the inscription, 
which may be rendered : " Look, O mortal, by whose blood 
thou art redeemed. So act, that it may not have flowed in 
vain." In the other parts of the picture we see how man is 
taught to act rightly. In small circles at the base of the 
picture are the four Evangelists, who record the Gospel, so 
that all may know the good tidings. Beneath the figures of 
the Angel and Madonna in Annunciation stand two Doctors, 
SS. Jerome and Augustine, the translator of Scripture and 
the greatest teacher of the Latin Church. 

Humility and Penitence are necessary conditions of the 
mind, if the teaching of Scripture and of the Fathers is to 
have its way. So in two small pictures at the bottom of the 
picture these states are impressed. St. Augustine receives a 
lesson of humility from the child who is trying to empty the 
sea into the hole he has made in the sand — the great bishop 
perceives that he may as well hope to fathom the mystery 
of the Trinity ; while in another picture St. Jerome is seen 
in the wilderness beating his breast before a crucifix in an 
agony of remorse and penitence. 

The easel pictures of the scholars of Perugino may be 
more conveniently studied and compared in this gallery 

H 



H4 PERUGIA 

than elsewhere. The following are the most important 
examples : — 

Eusebio di S. Giorgio— 

23. Sala XL, Adoration of the Magi. 
16. „ XII., Madonna and Child. 
20. „ „ S. Antonio between SS. Francesco and 
Bernardino. 

Lo Spagna- 

7. Sala XL, Madonna and Child with Saints. 

8. „ ,, Father Eternal with Angels. 

Sinibaldo Ibi— 

7. Sala XI 1 1., Annunciation. 

25. „ „ Madonna and Child. 

30. „ „ Madonna and Child with Saints. 

Giannicola Manni— 

No. 3. Sala XII., The Kingdom of God. 

Domenico Alfani— 

27. Sala XII., Madonna and Child. 

36. „ „ Holy Family. 

37. „ „ Madonna and Child. 

38. „ „ Pieta. 

Another painter, Bernardino di Mariotto, who was 
working 1502- 1 521, ought to be mentioned, though he 
can perhaps hardly be described as a pupil of Perugino. 
He was a native of San Severino, and is represented by — 

1. Sala VII., Marriage of S. Catherine. 

2. „ „ Madonna and Child. 
20. „ „ Madonna and Child. 

Beginning with the examples of Eusebio di San Giorgio, 
we find — 

No. 23. Sala XL, Adoration of the Magi. It is dated 1505, 
and has been attributed to Raphael on account of a heraldic 
pattern on the legs of one of the bystanders, but there is 
nothing in the nature of the picture to warrant the supposi- 



THE PICTURE GALLERY n 5 

fion. We may note the pleasant group of angels who make 
music in the sky. 

No. [6, Sala XIII., is another good example of Euscbio's 
Style. It is a picture of Madonna and Child with St. John 
the Baptist and St. Benedict. The lighting of the picture is 
good, and the contrast between the red robe of St. John 
and the black robe of St. Benedict is fine. The tradition of 
Perugian landscape is already falling away into formalism. 

No. 20, Sala XIII., Eusebio di San Giorgio. St. Antonio, 
the Abbot, sits between SS. Francis and Bernardino, with 
Madonna and Child in the clouds above. This is a very 
inferior picture. 

Lo Spagna is finely represented by No. 7, Sala XL, a 
picture removed from the Church of S. Girolamo. Madonna 
with the Child sits on a high throne, to the left stand SS. 
John the Baptist and Francis, to the right SS. Jerome and 
Anthony of Padua. St. John the Baptist has a curiously 
unsuitable presentment— he appears as a rather over-refined 
man of the world. St. Francis, also, is no Apostle of Poverty. 
If, however, we forget all about such things and regard the 
pietures as a charming study of colour set in a beautiful 
landscape, it has undeniable quality, and it places the 
master as one of the most successful of the followers of 
Perugino. 

No. 8, Sala XL, by Lo Spagna, represents the Father 
Eternal bearing the globe of the world and surrounded by 
insignificant angels. It is a poor picture, and serves to re- 
mind us of the inequality of this master's work. 

No. 26, Sala XI II., a detached fresco from San Francesco- 
al- Monte, is attributed to Lo Spagna or Eusebio di S. Giorgio. 
It represents .St. Francis receiving the stigmata. The wild 
desert of La Vernia becomes a smiling valley with a summer 
sea in the distance. Nevertheless the artist makes some 
attempt in the figure of St. Francis to grapple with the 
struggle of soul. 

In Sala XIII. , No. 7, an Annunciation; No. 25, Madonna 
and Child with S. Antonio of Padua and perhaps St. Leo- 
nard; and No. 30, Madonna and Child with SS. Joseph, John 



n6 PERUGIA 

the Baptist, Fiorenzo, and Filippo Benin, are described as 
authentic works of Sinibaldo Ibi, a painter whose name 
occurs in histories of art, but who is without importance. 

Giannicola Manni is well represented by No. 3, Sala XII.; 
the subject is the Kingdom of God in heaven and on earth. 
Above is Christ in a mandorla of rays, attended by kneel- 
ing figures of Madonna and St. John the Baptist. Below, 
in a beautiful landscape, is set the communion of saints. 
St. Peter stands as the central figure ; to the left are St. Paul, 
St. John the Baptist, St. Nicholas, St. Jerome, and others ; to 
the right St. Sebastian, St. Stephen, St. Mary Magdalene, 
St. Peter Martyr, Sta. Chiara, and another. The landscape 
is lovely, and the colour of the whole is harmonious and 
pleasant. The picture was painted in 1507, and was ori- 
ginally in S. Domenico. 

The work of Domenico Alfani shows the influence of 
Raphael rather than that of Perugino, and also illustrates 
the incapacity of most of the followers of these two masters. 

No. 27, Sala XIII., Madonna with angels about to place 
a crown upon her head. The Child stretches towards 
St. Peter, who stands on the left ; St. Paul is on the right. 
St. Nicholas with three bags of money, and Sta. Lucia with 
two eyes on a dish, kneel in front. 

No. 36, Sala XIII., Holy Family, Madonna and Child and 
John the Baptist with SS. Joachim and Joseph and St. Anne. 
This picture is said to have been designed by Raphael. 
The pomegranate is a symbol of the fruitfulness of the new 
life, which had appeared in the world. 

No. 37, Sala XI 1 1., by Domenico Alfani. Madonna crowned 
by angels with the Child, with SS. Gregory and Nicholas. 

No. 38, Sala XIII., by Domenica Alfani. Pieta. 

We now return to Sala VII. to examine the pictures of 
Bernardino di Mariotto. They are characterised by a 
disagreeably cold scheme of colour, the pose of the figures 
is stiff and ungraceful, and it would probably be difficult to 
find in the work of any master of reputation three Madonnas 
with a more wooden expression. 

No. 1, Sala VI I., represents the Marriage of St. Catherine ; 



THE PICTURE GALLERY 117 

opposite to her stands St. Mary Magdalene. These two 
women offend less than any other part of the three pic- 
tures. Behind St. Catherine stands St. Peter, and behind the 
Magdalene, a bishop. 

No. 2, Sala VII., Madonna and Child with SS. Benedict 
and Francis, is a picture that has nothing to recommend it ; the 
figures of the two monks are little better than burlesques. 
They stand for the two great ideas lying behind Monachism, 
the old order of learned recluses, and the new and aggressive 
mendicancy. 

No. 20, Sala VII., by Bernardino di Mariotto, Madonna 
and Child with SS. Andrew and Giuliano, is of the same 
general character. St. Andrew bears a fish as a symbol at once 
of his means of livelihood and of his mission. 

The Banners. — There is one kind of picture which ought 
to be mentioned as characteristic of the art of Central Italy 
and of the temper of the people. This is the banner used 
alike as a means of display and to express the overwrought 
feelings of a terror-stricken people. 

Perugia was liable to terrible outbreaks of pestilence. In 
1348 there was great mortality, and so deadly was the 
disease, that it is said neither priest nor frate would confess 
the sick. Between April and August 100,000 individuals 
are supposed to have died in Perugia and the surrounding 
territories, and crowds of people went in procession doing 
penance and fasting. On the 2nd of May in this year there 
was found under the high altar of the Church of S. Fiorenzo 
the body of that saint. On the 4th of May there was a 
great procession of priests, frati, and people ; and they 
carried the body through the town, praying God that of His 
mercy He would be pleased to make the pestilence cease 
through the merits and the intercession of S. Fiorenzo. 
The banners such as we see to-day in the churches of 
Sta. Maria Nuova and S. Francesco del Prato in Perugia, help 
us to realise the horror of the unfortunate people. These 
pictures date from a century later, but pestilence continued 
to sweep over the town long after the great outbreak of 
1348. 



uS PERUGIA 

These two "plague" banners wove painted by Bonfigli, 

and both of them have been much damaged. 

Christ, of more than life size, is the central figure at Sta. 
Maria Nuova. In His right hand, He bears the arrow of 
pestilence ready to be thrown among the people. The face 
is that of a minister of fate, who has neither control over the 
judgments nor concern with their fulfilment. Its impersonal 
aloofness could have brought small consolation to those who 
s a fie red. 

At each side of this great figure saints bear the instru- 
ments of the Passion, and above are the sun and moon. At 
the feet of Christ kneel the Madonna and the Franciscan 
S. Paolina. The lower part of the picture is divided from 
the upper by an arch ; under it crouch the people of Perugia, 
and over them hovers Death. At the sides of the groups of 
citizens kneel St. Benedict and Sta. Scholastica praying for 
their deliverance. 

The banner at S. Francesco del Prato is more elaborate. 
Madonna Misericordia is the central figure ; with her robe 
she covers groups of men on one side and women on the 
other. In the upper part of the picture Christ, with a cruci- 
form nimbus, casts down arrows. At His right hand is the 
Angel of Justice, and at His left the Angel of Mercy. 
Gathered round Madonna and adding their intercession to 
hers, are S. Lorenzo and the Bishops SS. Severo, Costanzo, 
and Ludovico. Beneath these, to the right, SS. Francis 
and Bernardino, and to the left St. Peter Martyr and St. 
Sebastian. The special protectors of Perugia, the mendi- 
cant preacher and the mendicant brethren, all unite with 
the special plague saint, St. Sebastian, in the prayer of 
Madonna. In the lowest part of the picture stands Death ; 
the ground is strewn with his victims, but the prayers have 
been heard, the Angel of Mercy has triumphed, and the 
Archangel Raphael strikes Death with his spear. Accord- 
ing to legend the face of Madonna was painted by an angel 
and not by Bonfigli. 

Another banner by Bonfigli is preserved in the picture 
gallery. It is No. 10 in the Sala di Bernardino di Mariotto ; 



THE PICTURE GALLERY 119 

the date is 1465. In the lower part of the picture a number 
of persons put the candles, which they have been carrying in 
procession, into a basket. S. Bernardino looks on, and in 
the upper part of the picture the divine approval is signified 
by the presence of Christ, attended by the nine choirs of 
angels. This is probably intended to illustrate one of the 
results of the preaching of S. Bernardino in Perugia. The 
game of "stones" was an old-established custom in the 
town, valued as a means of keeping up the hardihood and 
fighting quality of the people. The players were divided 
into two parties and fought, attacking each other with flights 
of stones and other weapons, so that men were left dead 
after the contest. S. Bernardino denounced this warfare, 
and persuaded the people to give their money to buy candles 
and torches to increase the magnificence of the festival of S. 
Ercolano, and otherwise to add to the devotion of the town. 
In this way there was given fifty florins which the companies 
of the "Sasso," the " Maggio," and the "Monte Luce" 
had for the games. On the 24th February, being the feast 
of S. Ercolano, the body of the saint was carried in proces- 
sion, all the "religious" being, as was the custom, without 
candles or torches, while the Priors, the Chamberlains, the 
treasurers, the stewards, walked with the light of torches. 
When they reached S. Domenico, they left the candles and 
torches with Baglione de Fortera and two others, who were 
the appointed officers for the building and repair of the 
Duomo ; and thus they commemorated the saint with a 
more splendid procession instead of with games and 
dancing. 

Another of these banner pictures is No. 14 of the Sala 
Bernardino di Mariotto in the picture gallery. It is attri- 
buted to Niccolo da Foligno or to Bartolommeo Caporali. 
The date is 1466, and if it is the work of the first-named 
master, it is not characteristic of his usual style ; he generally 
puts a keener temper and more intensity of feeling into his 
work. 

The subject of the banner is the Annunciation ; Madonna 
kneels at her reading desk, the angel inclines reverently as 



120 PERUGIA 

the message is given. From above, the Father Eternal 
sends down the dove of the Holy Spirit in a shower of rays, 
and a company of angels make a joyful noise in celebration 
of the good tidings. On the lower part of the banner there 
is a group of kneeling people, including brethren of the 
Misericordia and magistrates. They are presented by mem- 
bers of the order of the Servi, which had its origin in the 
special devotion of Seven Florentines to the service of the 
Blessed Virgin. 

THE DUOMO 

Duomo of S. Lorenzo.— The Duomo, as we see it, was 

founded in 1345, but little or no progress was made for 
many years. It was not until the middle of the fifteenth 
century that the work was set about in earnest. In 1437 
the foundation of the fagade was laid, Bishop Baglioni 
assisting at the ceremonial. Even to this day, however, 
the building remains unfinished. The main entrance is at 
the east end of the church, and the choir to the west. 
Probably the buildings of the Canonica, and the rapid 
fall of the ground, prevented the main entrance being de- 
signed in its usual position. The church occupies a fine 
site overlooking the piazza ; but the building is uninterest- 
ing and no advantage has been taken of the situation. 

The nave and aisles are all of one height. They are 
separated by comparatively light octagonal columns, and 
the effect is to give an air of true Umbrian spaciousness. 
The roof is groined and the windows are pointed, but there 
is no architectural interest that need detain the visitor. 

On entering the main door the tomb of Bishop Bag- 
lioni, mentioned above, is seen to the right. There are 
sculptured upon it the four Cardinal Virtues. 

Fortitude with a pillar. Temperance pouring water into 
wine. Justice with a sword. Prudence with a book. 

The first bay to the right is occupied by the Chapel of 
S. Bernardino, divided from the church by a beautiful 
iron screen. The chapel is fitted with elaborately carved 



THE DUO MO 121 

stalls. The altar-piece is a Descent from the Cross, by 
Baroccio. 

In the second bay is a picture presented by the guild 
of stone-workers and wood-carvers. The many fine ex- 
amples of carving and intarsiatura in the Perugian churches 
testify to the importance and the ability of the latter. 

Out of a third bay opens a small chapel containing the 
baptismal font. The cover has the symbols of the Evan- 
gelists and a cross in the central panel. On the pillar 
dividing the aisle from the nave is the picture known as 
" Madonna della Grazie." It has the reputation of working 
miracles, and has been ascribed to Giannicola Manni. 

The right transept forms the winter choir. The altar- 
piece is by Luca Signorelli (1442-1523). Madonna and 
Child are seated on a raised throne with a garland hung 
over the back. To the left stand St. John the Baptist and 
S. Onofrio ; to the right are S. Stefano and S. Ercolano. 
At the foot of the throne a most ungainly angel plays on 
a stringed instrument. The colour of the picture as we 
see it to-day is dull and heavy, nor is there any quality 
of design or treatment to compensate. Madonna is un- 
refined in type, St. John the Baptist is a sentimental poseur, 
while S. Stefano looks towards the Child with a supercilious 
air. S. Onofrio was one of those who led a solitary life in 
the desert, and for sixty years existed without human inter- 
course. He is a representative of the extreme rigour of the 
ascetic life ; but such a travesty of humanity as is here 
represented is unworthy of the artist. There is a certain 
kind of heavy and conventional dignity in the ordering of 
the picture, and it is usual to praise the glass with flowers 
which stands in the foreground ; but it is difficult to realise 
that the painter of the frescoes at Orvieto should have also 
painted this picture. The date assigned to it is 1484. 

Left aisle. — The first bay of the left aisle is occupied by 
the Chapel of the Ring— so called from the ring with 
which Joseph espoused the Virgin. In 985 a Roman Jew 
who was selling jewels to a certain Ranieri, a goldsmith 
of Chiusi, presented him with an onyx, saying, " If thou 



122 PERUGIA 

knewest the dignity of this gem thou wouldst esteem it 
more than all the rest, for it is the ring with which Joseph 
espoused Mary." Ranieri took it home, and its existence 
was forgotten until, on the death of his only son, he was 
reminded of it, for when they were carrying the body to 
burial the youth rose up and reminded his father of the 
ring, as by its virtue he had been brought to life again. 
The ring was taken to the Church of S. Mustiola, and there 
it worked miracles. But the monks into whose hands it 
was committed grew careless, and one of them, in 1473 — 
a German, Winter by name — stole it, intending to take it 
to his own country. As he left Chiusi a dense fog was 
sent upon him so that he could see nothing ; he lost his 
way and found himself back at his starting-place. Having 
a friend in Perugia, he went there, and was taken to Braccio 
Baglioni, who sent him to the Priors. It was unanimously 
agreed that the ring was a gift from heaven, and that it 
should never be allowed to leave Perugia. Siena and the 
Pope both tried to recover the treasure for Chiusi, but in 
spite of the weakness of their title the Perugians kept 
possession of it. The picture of the Sposalizio now at 
Caen, once attributed to Perugino, but now believed to be 
by Lo Spagna, was painted for this chapel. The intarsia 
work of the seats is fine. On the pillar forming the corner 
of the chapel is a fragment — a portrait of S. Bernardino. 

On the wall on the fifth bay to the left is a relief by 
Agostino di Duccio. In the upper part is the Father 
Eternal and two angels ; below Christ rises from the 
tomb between Mary and St. John. 

In the left transept is an urn containing the remains 
of three Popes — Innocent III. (d. 1216), Urban IV. (d. 
1264), and Martin IV. (d. 1285). Jacques de Vitry tells 
how, when he came to Perugia to be consecrated Bishop 
of Acre, he found that Pope Innocent III. had just died. 
The body was exposed in the Church of S. Lorenzo (not, 
of course, the present building), abandoned by citizens and 
cardinals, who were busy with the election of a new Pope. 
The body was nearly naked, having been stripped of its 



THE DUO MO 123 

rich garments the night before. " I entered the church 
and saw with my own eyes how brief and vain is the un- 
certain glory of this world." 

Martin IV. was honoured by a public funeral, for which 
the people were taxed, as the canons were not willing to 
undertake the expense. Many lame and blind people were 
brought to the funeral, and through the merits of the Pope 
were healed and freed from their diseases. 



THE CANONICA 

To the west of the Duomo a mass of buildings include 
the Seminary and the Canonica. Within, there is a cloister 
and an open stairway and loggia, forming one of the most 
picturesque architectural monuments in Perugia. 

In the cloister a number of fragments of sculpture, archi- 
tectural details, and tablets have been preserved. 

1. A figure of S. Lorenzo with his gridiron, of rude work- 
manship. 91. Creation of Eve. 94. Creation of Eve and 
the Fall. 134. Madonna and Child. 

A tablet records the election at Perugia of the following 
Popes : — 

Honorius III. in succession to Innocent III. in 1216. 
Clement IV. „ Urban IV. „ 1264. 

Honorius IV. „ Martin IV. „ 1285. 

Clement V. „ Benedict XI. „ 1305. 

The last of these elections marks an epoch in the history 
of the Papacy, and it had an indirect effect on the extension 
of popular government in Perugia, and in many other parts 
of Italy. 

The death of the Emperor Frederick II. in 1250, and the 
conquest of Naples by Charles of Anjou in 1266, had 
destroyed the influence of the Empire. But though the 
Papacy had crushed the Empire, there was still the King of 
France to reckon with, and in this relation two strong and 
commanding natures met and crossed each other's paths 



124 PERUGIA 

during the last decade of the thirteenth century. Boniface 
VIII. was Pope and Philip the Fair was King of France. 

The struggle between them ended in the downfall and 
death of Boniface in October 1303. The cardinals at once 
elected Benedict XL as his successor, but the position of 
the new Pope was so insecure that he left Rome after Easter 
1304, and came by way of Orvieto to Perugia. Feeling 
himself safe in Perugia, and dreading a general council 
which the enemies of Boniface VIII. demanded, he ventured 
to promulgate a Bull against those who had been concerned 
against the late Pope. It was affixed to the doors of the 
Duomo in Perugia, and called upon those named to appear 
before him. 

On the 7th July 1304 Benedict died, and when the cardi- 
nals met, the two parties, those friendly to Boniface and 
those who favoured the King of France, were irreconcilable. . 
The palace in which the conclave was held is described as 
being the residence of the Pope ; it was contiguous to the 
palace of the bishop and to the rooms belonging to the 
Cathedral. The building was burnt in 1534, but from the 
description of its situation it probably occupied the site of 
the present Canonica and Seminary. Nineteen cardinals 
met in Perugia on the 10th July 1304, and it was not till the 
5th June 1305 that the next Pope was proclaimed. A 
compromise was agreed upon — the friends of Boniface were 
to name three northern prelates, and the friends of the King 
of France were to make the choice ; and so ended the last 
conclave held in Perugia. The result of this election was 
the settlement of the Papacy at Avignon for the seventy 
years of the Babylonish captivity. The fact that for the 
greater part of the fourteenth century there was neither Pope 
nor Emperor in Italy has a most important bearing on the 
history of popular government throughout the Peninsula. 

The Maiestk delle Volte.— The Chapel of the Maiesta 
delle Volte is in the street which passes down from the 
Piazza S. Lorenzo under some high arches ; it belongs to 
the building of which the Canonica and the Seminary form 
parts. The three-quarter-length figure of the Madonna is 



CHURCHES IN NORTH-WESTERN DISTRICT 125 

painted on a great scale. The Child stands on her knee 
and she caresses him tenderly. The drapery is richly 
decorated. 

Church of S. Martino. — In the Via del Verzaro, near the 
Piazza Felice Cavallotti, is the Church of S. Martino. Over 
the high altar is a picture by Giannicola Manni, represent- 
ing Madonna and Child attended by St. John the Baptist 
and S. Lorenzo. The picture is graceful and pleasant, with 
the detached air not uncommon in Umbrian pictures. The 
feminine figure of the Baptist is carefully balanced with that 
of S. Lorenzo, who has his gridiron and a palm branch to 
signify victory. The central group of the Mother and Child 
is insignificant. On the western wall to the left of the door 
as we enter is an illustration from the life of St. Martin. 
The young soldier wearing a helmet and coat of mail, and 
already encircled with the saintly nimbus, sits on a prancing 
horse attended by several armed men. His expression is 
that of an easy optimism, and he gracefully cuts his robe to 
give it to the beggar. Above him, Christ appears in glory 
attended by four angels ; but as this part of the picture is 
much damaged, it is difficult to say whether He wears the 
robe of charity which St. Martin had given to the beggar. 

CHURCHES IN THE NORTH-WESTERN 
DISTRICT 

S. Agostino. — This church, in the north-west district of 
the town, was originally of Gothic design, but it has since 
received a Renaissance lining. Some remains of Gothic 
chapels are shown in which there are traces of fourteenth- 
century frescoes. 

In another side chapel there is a fifteenth- century fresco 
representing Madonna with SS. Joseph and Jerome. It is 
of the usual Umbrian type, and probably is the work of one 
of Perugino's scholars. 

The most interesting feature in the church is the choir 
stalls, fine examples of intarsiatura work, which were de- 
signed by Perugino and executed by Baccio d'Agnolo (1462- 



126 PERUGIA 

1543). The centre panels have a representation of the 
Annunciation. 

The Sacristy, which is beautifully panelled, has an armoria 
of the sixteenth century, containing a number of relics. A 
calendar with a relic of the appropriate saint, for each day 
in the year, should be noticed. 

The larger part of the pictures in Sala X. of the Pina- 
coteca, in the Palazzo Pubblicc, came from this church ; and 
many of them formed part of the great altar-piece, painted 
by Perugino, the largest pieces being No. 20, the Nativity, 
and No. 11, the Baptism. 

The picture was contracted for in 1502, but was not 
finished for manv years. (See Dr. Williamson's " Perugino," 
p. 88.) 

The Chapel of the Confraternity of S. Agostino is en- 
tered to the right of the little piazza in front of the church. 
In it there are a number of sixteenth-century pictures. The 
roof is elaborately carved and gilt. 

Church of S. Angelo. — The round Church of S. Angelo 
stands on high ground near the walls and close to the gate 
of S. Angelo at the north-western end of the city. Its 
circular form has attracted some attention, and it is said 
to stand on the site of a pagan temple. 

The building rests upon sixteen columns of various sizes 
and styles ; and there is also, near the high altar, a cippus 
with a Roman inscription, and behind the high altar a slab 
of stone, said to be a pagan sacrificial table, probably once 
used as the altar. 

The sacristan shows a stone which was used to increase 
the sufferings of martyrs ; when they were hung by their 
hands or by the hair, this stone was tied to their feet. 

The church is remarkable for the number of relics it 
contains. The bodies of two children, S. Sevcrino and Sta. 
Firmina, and the body of Sta. Justina are preserved, besides 
the skulls of many other saints. 

There are some remains of Umbrian fresco in the church ; 
and in the chapel to the right the Madonna del Verde 
is said to be the earliest fresco of the Umbrian school in 



CHURCHES IN NORTH-WESTERN DISTRICT 127 

Perugia. The Gothic doorway outside of the church, pro- 
bably added in the fourteenth century, has twisted pillars 
and capitals with foliage. 

There is a fine view from the green sward in front of the 
church. 

S. Francesco-al-Monte and the Aqueducts.— A pleasant 
drive may be taken by leaving the city through the gate 
of S. Angelo, the spot where, according to tradition, St. 
Dominic and St. Francis met while on their way to the court 
of Honorius III., then in Perugia, to receive from him 
the confirmation of their rules. After passing through the 
gate we see immediately in front the wooded hill crowned 
by the Church and Monastery of S. Francesco-al-Monte, 
the favourite retreat of Frate Egidio, one of the early dis- 
ciples of St. Francis, and the scene of the visit paid by the 
French monarch to the simple brother. In the Fioretti 
it is told that Saint Louis of France, having heard of the 
great sanctity of Frate Egidio and desiring to see him, 
came to his house as a poor pilgrim, and asked to see the 
brother. Straightway Frate Egidio left his cell, and without 
further questions they kneeled down and embraced each 
other, as though they had been close familiar friends, and 
all without speaking. Then having continued in silence for 
some time, understanding each other far better than if they 
had spoken, they parted ; Saint Louis went on his journey 
and Frate Egidio returned to his cell. 

Continuing down hill, through olive groves, we pass 
through the village of S. Marco, and a mile or two farther 
on, we see the remains of the Aqueduct, built for the pur- 
pose of bringing water from Monte Pacciano into the town, 
during the latter part of the thirteenth century. There was 
much activity in Perugia in the direction of town improve- 
ments at this time, and amongst other enterprises there was 
this scheme to supply the citizens with fresh water. A com- 
mission was given in 1254 to a Messer Bonomo of Orte to 
bring water from Monte Pacciano, but his attempt was a 
failure ; and it was not until 1276 that efforts were re- 
newed under the direction of two Benedictine monks, 



128 PERUGIA 

Frati Bevegnate and Alberto, and a Venetian architect 
Boninsegna. 

The work was crowned with success, and on 12th Feb- 
ruary 1280 water came into the piazza, and the names of 
the architects are recorded with much adulation upon the 
Fountain. 

CHURCHES IN THE NORTH-EASTERN 
DISTRICT 

The Church of S. Severe — In the eleventh century a 
certain Romualdo established a community of Benedictines 
at Camaldoli in the Casentino. 

The rule of the monks was strict. They had no life in 
common, and even the labour prescribed by the rule was 
done in solitude. Their aim was to reform the practice of 
the Benedictine order. 

A community of these monks settled in Perugia, and 
built a church and monastery, dedicated in the name of S. 
Severo, probably in memory of the Archbishop of Ravenna, 
Romualdo having been a native of that town, and a monk 
at S. Apollinare-in-classe. In this monastery Raphael, 
when a youth, painted part of a fresco, which was finished 
many years afterwards by Perugino, towards the end of his 
life. The design fills a lunette, in the lower part of which 
is a niche with Madonna and Child. Raphael's part of the 
picture has for its centre Christ showing the wounds of the 
Passion. An angel floats in the air at each side in adora- 
tion, and over the head of Christ is the dove of the Holy 
Spirit. At the top of the lunette there was originally the 
Father Eternal, but nothing is now left except the A and 12 
on the leaves of a book. 

The intention of the design is to set forth a manifesta- 
tion of the Trinity, which is without beginning and without 
end. In the lower part of Raphael's design are seated 
St. Benedict and S. Romualdo, each accompanied by two 
of their disciples. All are clothed in white, for according 
to the legend it was given to S. Romualdo to see a ladder 



CHURCHES IN NORTH-EASTERN DISTRICT 129 

reaching up into heaven : on it were his brethren in white 
robes, and so he changed the black habit of the Benedictine 
rule into the white one we see here. 

With St. Benedict, the patriarch of the whole order re- 
formed and unreformed, sit his disciples, SS. Maurus and 
Placidus. With S. Romualdo are SS. Benedict and John, 
Camaldolese monks, who suffered martyrdom in Poland. 
St. Placidus and St. Benedict the Martyr have robes of rich 
colour over their white gowns. 

The picture was finished by Perugino, who many years 
after painted the row of saints that stand below the design of 
Raphael. To the left are Sta. Scholastica and SS. Jerome 
and John the Evangelist, to the right St. Martha and SS. 
Boniface and Gregory the Great. St. Martha is perhaps 
placed here in relation to Sta. Scholastica as the one who, 
according to tradition, was the first to gather together a 
convent of sisters, while Sta. Scholastica as the first Bene- 
dictine nun may be regarded as the foundress of conventual 
life for women. 

There is nothing in Raphael's part of the work to indicate 
his future fame ; it may, however, be noticed that his faces 
are not of the broad-browed and flat type common with 
Perugino and many of his scholars. 

The six large standing figures which Perugino painted 
below are heavy and dull. They pose in purposeless atti- 
tudes, and, with their expressionless faces, they represent 
the master perhaps at his worst. 

CHURCHES IN THE SOUTH-EASTERN 
DISTRICT 

S. Domenico. — The Church of S. Domenico lies at the 
south-eastern side of the town, on the way to S. Pietro dei 
Cassinesi. The Campanile is one of the landmarks of 
Perugia, rising, as it does, a short tower, pierced with large 
openings. Its bald and neglected appearance is in keeping 
with the blank walls of rough brick work and the gaunt, half- 
ruinous look of the whole building. It is, indeed, no unfitting 

I 



i 3 o PERUGIA 

symbol of the renunciation oi the world preached by the 
founder of the order to which it belongs, for it seems to owe 
nothing to the care of man. 

The original Gothic design has received a Renaissance 
lining, better fitted to express worldly magnificence than the 
ascetic life of the mendicant preachers. 

The only remains oi' the original Gothic church are some 

details of a chapel at the toot of the belfry, reached t>> a door 

opening out of the northern transept, where there are frag' 
Clients oi' frescoes relating to the life of Sta. Caterina. The 
great eastern window is also a remnant of the Gothic ehnrch. 
In the fourth chapel in the right aisle is a work by Agostino 
di Duccio (the sculptor oi' S. Bernardino). It consists of 
frescoes framed in graceful terra-eotta designs. The subject 
is the Glory of the Virgin, who sits in the semicircle at the 
top, with the Child upon her knee, attended by angels, 
beneath are the two busts of David and Isaiah, the human 
ancestor, and the prophet of the life which was to work the 
salvation of mankind. At the sides of the monument are the 
Angel Gabriel and Madonna in Annunciation. Below them 
stand St. John the Baptist as forerunner, and S. Lorenzo as 
confessor-martyr and patron oi Perugia. Around the niche, 
■which is now empty, are small pictures illustrating aets oi 
mercy and miracles wrought by the intervention oi Madonna, 

The large eastern window is tilled with modern glass. 
The circle at the top of the window contains the figure oi 
Christ with cherubim and seraphim. Below, in the pointed 
arches, are prophets and evangelists. In the upper range of 
large figures the Archangel Gabriel and the Virgin are in 
the centre, SS. Peter and Paul at the extreme right and Kit. 
In the centre of the next course are the two Perugian bishops, 
SS. Ercolano and Costanzo, with St. Dominic and the martyrs 
SS. Stefano, Peter (Martyr), and S. Lorenzo. The next 
range of figures have the four Doctors of the Church, Pope 
Benedict XL, and a Dominican, the lowest range of figures 
consists of six female confessors and martyrs. 

The left transept contains the most important monu- 
ment in the church, viz. the Tomb of Benedict XL, by 



CHURCHES IN SOUTH-EASTERN DISTRICT 131 

Giovanni Pisano. The Pope died in Perugia in 1304, and 
the work was exe< uicd shortly afterwards. The design 
suffers from the lightness oi the supporting columns and the 

skeleton-like outline ol the < nsped arch and of the arcading 
wliieh forms the uppei part of the monument. Under it the 

Child sits on Madonna's knee and receives the homage of 
the Pope. The sculpture itself falls below the style of the 
lower part of the monument, and the architectural forms 
interfere with the proper effect of this group. Neither are 
the busts of SS. Peter and Paul, a monk, and an Apostle, on 
the face of the canopy, at all equal to the main design. But 
when this is said, nothing except praise remains for what is 
one of the finest monuments and one of the most perfect 
examples of sepulchral sculpture in Italy. At the head and 
foot of the dead man are angels withdrawing the curtains so 
that we may see the recumbent figure. It must be admitted 
that the subject of the curtain-drawing angels, which became 
a Tuscan tradition, is rather petty in conception, but in this 
instance the extreme beauty and grace of the angels so 
occupies the mind that the motive is scarcely noticed. The 
figure of the Pope is a most harmonious design ; the face 
suggests neither death nor life, but only eternal peace. The 
graceful lines of the drapery, and the solemn simplicity of 
the form, erring neither in gaunt asceticism nor in dramatic 
suggestion, make up a composition such as is hardly equalled 
elsewhere. The subtle art of Giovanni has left behind all 
trace of Romanesque rudeness, and it has not yet suffered 
from the mannered weakness and the feeble melodrama ol 
later times. 

Benedict XI. filled the papal chair for a few months follow- 
ing the stormy life of Boniface VIII., and before the beginning 
of the seventy years of the Babylonish captivity at Avignon ; 
but, as the sculptor has shown us, for him there is now no 
warfare. He has entered into the full harmony of existence, 
and this marble is a symbol suggesting with marvellous 
subtlety the existence which has neither beginning nor 
ending. 

S. Pietro dei Cassinesi is a Benedictine foundation, 



1 32 PERUGIA 

dating from the later part of the tenth century. The church 
is Basilican in character, and the nave is divided from the 
aisles by antique columns removed from the Church of S. 
Angelo. The eastern part of the church is separated from 
the nave by a triumphal arch, on which is painted the 
Annunciation ; the form of this part of the church is Gothic. 
There are no transepts, and the shallow recesses formed by 
the piers of the triumphal arch are used as organ lofts. 
The flat wooden roof is coffered, and richly coloured and 
gilt. No part of the wall surface is left without decoration 
of some kind, and although for the most part the paintings 
are uninteresting and poor, the general effect of the broad 
and simple nave, the brilliant colouring, and the dark masses 
of the choir stalls, is distinctly striking. 

The Campanile is picturesque, and from the direction of 
Assisi it is seen from a long distance, forming with the mass 
of monastic building a most striking feature in the landscape. 

The founder of the monastery, S. Pietro Vincioli, was a 
man of force and character, and amongst other things he 
impressed his own generation by his power of working 
miracles. One of these is connected with the building of 
the church. It is recorded in a picture in the fifth bay of 
the right aisle, where a granite column (now the second to 
the left of the nave) is seen suspended in the air by the will 
of the Abbot, the rope having broken. 

Turning to the pictures in the church, there is immedi- 
ately to the right of the central door an indifferent picture 
by Orazio Alfani (15 10-1583) giving facts from the life of 
St. Peter. It contains a traditional portrait of Perugino. 

Right Aisle — First bay. A pleasing painting by an un- 
knoAvn hand, representing Madonna and Child with St. 
Mary Magdalene and St. Sebastian. 

Third bay. A very poor and mannered Assumption of the 
Virgin by Orazio Alfani. It serves to remind us of the 
depth to which art fell in the sixteenth century. 

Seventh bay. A picture representing the choice offered to 
King David between war, pestilence, and famine. 

Eighth bay. A picture attributed to Masolino (1383?- 



CHURCHES IN SOUTH-EASTERN DISTRICT 133 

1440?), in which St. Benedict, attended by SS. Maurus and 
Placidus, gives the rule to a group of kneeling monks. 

Ninth bay. A picture showing how at the intercession of 
Pope Gregory the Great the plague was stayed in Rome. 
The Archangel Michael appears in the sky sheathing his 
sword ; below is the castle of S. Angelo. 

Tenth bay. To the right opens the small chapel dedicated 
to St. Joseph ; above the door, on the inside, is a fresco by a 
scholar of Perugino. 

Over the entrance to the monastery is a Marriage of 
St. Catherine by Bonifazio. Opposite to the entrance to the 
monastery, on the pier of the triumphal arch, is a Descent 
from the Cross, attributed to Sebastiano del Piombo (1485— 

1 547)- 

Left aisle — Fifth bay. Entombment, said to be by 
Perugino. It has nothing to recommend it ; we note in 
particular the feeble rendering of the nude. 

Seventh bay. Annunciation. Supposed to be a copy from 
Raphael, made by Sassoferrato (1605- 168 5). A paltry effect 
is given by the representation of the Father Eternal seen 
through a window. 

Ninth bay. Adoration of the Magi, by Eusebio di San 
Giorgio (working 1492-1527). This picture is distinctly 
one of the most satisfactory in the church, and it places 
Eusebio on a higher level than other examples attributed to 
him in the picture gallery. We may remark the growing 
tendency to realism which permits the representation of one 
of the kings as a negro. 

Farther on, in the left aisle, is a copy, by Sassoferrato, of 
Raphael's Entombment. 

At the end of the left aisle is a Pieta by Bonfigli (1425- 
1496). To the left, a stout and burly St. Jerome translates 
the Scriptures, and receives inspiration for the task from 
an angel. To the right stands St. Leonard, a stiff and ex- 
pressionless form, bearing a yoke in his right hand. This 
symbol reminds us of his works of charity for those who 
suffer adversity in prison or in slavery. In the centre of the 
picture Madonna bears the dead body of Christ on her 



134 PERUGIA 

knee. There is no undue exaggeration of expression nor 
of weak sentiment, but there is an unimaginative realism 
and a consequent lack of true dignity in the conception. 

The love of decoration comes out in the rich hanging' in 
the background. This tendency may be noticed in some of 
the examples by Bonngli in the gallery. 

Three Chapels open out of the left aisle. The most 
westerly, that of the Holy Sacrament, contains some ex- 
ceedingly bad paintings by Giorgio Vasari (151a *574)i &e 
historian of Italian art. These pictures are filled with enor- 
mous figures — pale, dry, hard, and uninteresting. They are 
supposed to have been painted in 1566. There is also an 
unimportant fragment attributed to Lo Spagna (working 
1503-1530?). 

The Capella Ranieri has a picture by Guido Reni (1574- 
1642), which need not detain the visitor. 

The last of the three chapels is that of the Baglioni. 
There is a marble altar-piece by Mino da Fiesole (1431- 
1484), an unfortunate example of the master's manner. The 
subject is the Rising from the Tomb. Above the altar-piece 
is an Annunciation, an unimportant picture by Pinturicchio 
(1454-1 5 1 3). On the right wall of the chapel is a picture 
by Sassoferrato. 

In the Sacristy, which opens out of the right aisle, there 
are five fragments by Perugino, parts of an altar-piece, the 
principal part of the picture having- been taken from Perugia 
by the French. They represent three Benedictines, viz., 
Sta. Scholastica, the sister of St. Benedict, S. Maurus, one of 
his principal disciples, and S. Pietro Vincioli, the founder of 
the monastery. The other two panels represent two of the 
patrons of Perugia — SS. Ercolano and Costanzo. 

There are in the Sacristy and in an adjoining room some 
finely illuminated choral books. They are the work of 
Piero di Giacomo da Pozzuolo (14^1-1472), Bocchardini di 
Firenze (1517-1518), and Maestro Mose di Napoli (1525— 
1526). 

The Choir. At the entrance to the choir there are to the 
right and left ambones decorated in the Renaissance style. 



CHURCHES IN SOUTH-EASTERN DISTRICT 135 

They may be regarded as elaborate examples of the taste of 
the end of the fifteenth century. 

The choir stalls are the work of Stefano of Bergamo 
(1535) ; the carving and the intarsiatura are said to be from 
designs by Raphael. On the arms of the stalls to the 
left there may be found the four symbols of the Evangelists, 
and the punishment of the damned — tormented by serpents. 
On the right are various symbolical animals, such as griffins, 
dolphins, dragons, winged horses, and sphinxes. On the 
carved panels at the back of the upper row of stalls there 
are designs of the Nativity, of St. Jerome in the Desert, and 
of the Ascension of Christ. The finest pieces of intarsiatura 
are on either side of the door opening on to the balcony at 
the back of the choir ; they represent to the right the Finding 
of Moses by the daughter of Pharaoh, and to the left the 
Annunciation. 

There is no doubt an intentional apposition in the choice 
of these two subjects, as Moses, the redeemer of the Israelites 
from bondage and their lawgiver, was regarded as a type and 
figure of Christ. Near to the entrance there is a " pila," or 
holy water basin, with the figures offish carved in relief. The 
intention, probably, is to allude to the symbolical meaning 
given to the fish as a figure of Christ : "This is that Fish 
which in Baptism is brought by invocation into the waters 
of the font, so that what was water is, from Piscis, called 
Piscina." 

S. Costanzo.— The Church of S. Costanzo is outside the 
town, on the same ridge of hill as that upon which S. Pietro 
dei Cassinesi stands, and is reached from the Porta S. 
Pietro. The small building, with its simple and graceful 
bell-tower, and its round-arched portico on the southern 
side, forms a picturesque group with the Casa di Parrochia 
behind. The ground falls away rapidly to the east, north, 
and south, and the piazza in front of the church commands 
a wide view over the spacious Umbrian valley. 

S. Costanzo, or Constantius, a Perugian, was elected 
the second bishop of his city, about the middle of the second 
century. He lived a godly and holy life, being described 



1 36 PERUGIA 

as just, strong, prudent, and temperate ; and when the 
soldiers of Marcus Aurelius tried to constrain him to abjure 
his faith, he endured persecution with fortitude, issuing 
unhurt from the flames of the furnace, and singing hymns 
in the cauldron of boiling oil. He was decapitated near 
Foligno on the 2Sth of January 154, or according to others 
in 173, and his body was carried by a pious disciple to the 
place called Aiola, outside of the gate of S. Pietro of Perugia, 
and honourably buried, upon the spot where the Church of 
S. Costanzo now stands. Every year on the 28th of January 
it was the custom of the magistrates, with the colleges of 
the arts, all the religious bodies, and the clergy, to visit the 
shrine of this saint, one of the patrons of the city, in pro- 
cession, with the greatest devotion and magnificence. Ten 
prisoners were liberated annually on that day in honour of 
the Saint, and all the expenses of the procession were borne 
by the Commune. The present church is a building dating 
from the end of the twelfth century, and is especially note- 
Avorthy as the only example of the Romanesque style of 
architecture in Perugia. It has been restored mainly at 
the instance of the present Pope, Leo XIII., who was 
formerly Bishop of Perugia. The sculpture upon the 
western facade has several interesting features characteristic 
of the art of the twelfth century. The principal theme is 
the Announcement of the G-ospel to all nations, and 
the regenerating power of the Word, upon the life of the 
Christian. 

Upon the pediment at the top of the building is the 
figure of the Eternal surrounded by an aureole, at the foot 
oi which spring branches of the vine, symbolical of the 
Church upon earth. Below this figure is a round window, 
with stone tracery composed of crosses and circles. In the 
centre is the Lamb, the Agnus Dei, holding the ensign of 
the resurrection. Round the circular window are the symbols 
of the four Evangelists supported on brackets. At the top 
are the Eagle (St. John) and the Angel (St. Matthew) ; at the 
bottom are the Ox (St. Luke) and the Lion (St. Mark). The 
window as a whole suggests the triumph of the Lamb, and 



CHURCHES IN SOUTH-EASTERN DISTRICT 137 

the conquest of the world by the Gospel, which was spread 
over the four quarters of the globe. The sculptured friezes 
both above and below this window have figures of animals 
in the attitude of adoration before a cross or an altar, 
r.ignificant of the praise which all creation offers to the 
Lamb. On either side of the porch upon the wall are four 
panels, with the Cross as the principal theme. The two 
nearest to the door have on the arms of the cross and at the 
foot the figures of doves, lions, and griffins, representing 
the strong and the proud, who, as well as the meek and 
simple souls, take refuge beside the cross. 

The sculpture round the doorway repeats, in a slightly 
different form, the ideas expressed in the upper part of the 
facade. The workmanship is rude, but in spite of the tech- 
nical deficiencies the figures have an air of dignity and 
vitality. 

Upon the lintel, the Eternal is seated on a rainbow 
enclosed within a glory, in the act of blessing and holding a 
roll of the law. At the sides are the four symbols of the 
Evangelists, each with an open book. The figure of the 
Legislator, with his servants the Evangelists, was the subject 
almost universally chosen for the principal place upon the 
west front of churches up to the end of the twelfth century. 
After that time the usual theme became the Last Judgment. 
In place of the Manifestation of the Word there is the 
Judgment of the Judge. 

The sculptured jambs have suffered much damage, and 
do not now appear to be in their original position. 

A running scroll, with men and animals among the leaves, 
is a favourite subject for the lintel and side-posts of door- 
ways. Other examples will be found on such Romanesque 
churches as the Duomo, Assisi ; S. Pietro, and the Duomo, 
Spoleto ; and the Duomo, Spello, where the main theme is 
the same, that of a plant bearing fruit and leaves, with men 
and animals in its branches. 

There was evidently a symbolical significance attached to 
such figures, but no very satisfactory explanation has yet 
been given to cover all the variations in representation. 



138 PERUGIA 

It has been suggested that the plant represents that which 
provides safety, shelter, and healing for the soul ; it stands 
in fact for the same ideas as the symbolical tree in the book 
of Revelation, whose leaves were for the healing of the 
nations, and as the vine of the Lord, in the New Testa- 
ment. 

The figures in the branches are symbols, signifying both 
the unregenerate man and the man whose wild and savage 
nature is changed to a state of holiness by feeding upon the 
Word. 

A careful comparison of the various examples to be found 
in Romanesque sculpture would very probably lead to a 
more satisfactory solution of the underlying meaning ; and 
the writers would recommend such a study to other travellers 
as one likely to prove full of interest. 

At S. Costanzo, on the left, at the foot of the jamb, are 
several wild beasts tearing and rending one another, as man 
in the unregenerate state is a prey to evil passions. Above 
these animals a contrast is offered by birds dwelling in 
safety and peace among the branches, significant of the joys 
of those who live in harmony with the divine ruling. These 
two groups may also allude to the punishment of the wicked 
in hell, and the reward of the blessed in heaven, while 
birds feeding upon the vine, and drinking from the chalice, are 
symbols of the Sacrament of the Eucharist, the instrument 
by means of which the regenerate nature is strengthened 
and the hope of blessedness attained. The interior has been 
entirely restored. The walls and ceiling have been painted 
with symbolical designs, and several panel pictures, as well 
as the high altar are in the Byzantine manner. 

The effect is good, and admirably suited to the general 
character of the buildinsr. 



CHURCHES IN THE WESTERN DISTRICT 

The oratory of S. Bernardino, close to the Church of 
S. Francesco del Prato, has a fagade covered with sculpture 
executed by Agostino di Duccio in the year 1461. 



CHURCHES IN WESTERN DISTRICT 139 

The central subject is the Glory of S. Bernardino. In 
the pediment Christ sits in the act of blessing - , attended 
by angels in adoration. On the pilasters on each side of 
the building are two niches. The upper ones have a re- 
presentation of the Annunciation, to the left the Arch- 
angel Gabriel, and to the right Madonna. The two lower 
niches have the Perugian bishops SS. Costanzo and 
Ercolano. The inscription running along the foot of the 
pediment is — " Augusta Perusia, MCCCLXI." The doorway- 
has, in the tympanum, S. Bernardino in an aureole of flame, 
surrounded by angels, on a long panel, and on two panels 
(beneath the figures in Annunciation) are sculptured acts 
of the saints. On the pillars at the sides of the doors the 
panels have angels in low relief, except on the lower ones, 
on which are figures of Poverty and Chastity to the left, 
and Temperance and Obedience on the right. The angels 
round the central figure, and those on the panels at the 
sides of the door, make music on a variety of instruments. 
The composition expresses joy and praise to God for 
the life of the Saint and for the miracles which he was 
permitted to work for the edification alike of the souls 
and the bodies of men. The virtues round the doorway 
represent the ascetic ideals of St. Francis and his followers, 
of whom S. Bernardino was counted among the stricter sort. 

We shall better understand this monument if we com- 
pare it with others in which there was the same inten- 
tion to glorify the divine power as it was manifested in 
the lives of great theologians and teachers. At Assisi, 
over the high altar in S. Francesco, Giotto has painted 
the Glory of St. Francis. Choirs of angels surround 
the saint, who bears the cross and a book. The Glory 
of St. Augustine is found at S. Francesco in Pistoia, 
where the Saint is seated on a great throne, the dove of 
the Holy Spirit descends on him, doctors of the Church 
surround him, and below are the Seven Virtues and the 
Seven Liberal Arts. Here it was not so much the ascetic 
ideal which was proclaimed as the cultivation of know- 
ledge and virtue by which man attains the goal of life. 



140 PERUGIA 

A somewhat similar lesson was taught by the Grlory of 
St. Thomas Aquinas at S. Caterina in Pisa, where we see 
how he was inspired both by Holy Writ and Greek learn- 
ing, and how he was thus enabled to bring light into 
dark places by his writings. The facade of S. Bernardino 
illustrates that view of life in which asceticism is the 
moving power in the world. 

It is the ideal of the mendicant that is held up for 
imitation ; it is by the Franciscan virtues that man is 
supposed to reach the true aim of life. 

S. Bernardino spent his whole life in preaching, and on 
four occasions he came to Perugia. Once in the depth 
of a cold and hard winter he preached for five days, during 
which time the weather was softened so that there was 
neither rain nor cold. It was in 1425 that he made most 
impression ; 3000 persons listened to him in the piazza ; 
no work was done during the time, and debtors were freed 
from the danger of arrest. 

Turning to the acts of the Saint we see, below the 
figures of the Annunciation, two scenes, results of the 
preaching of S. Bernardino. In one of them the sheep 
kneel, and behind the preacher there appears on the wall 
the famous monogram with the name of Jesus. 

On the panel below the tympanum there are three sepa- 
rate scenes. To the left is the story of how a child was 
saved from drowning, and to the right the devil appears 
to a man who has been condemned and cast into prison. 
Satan, however, is cheated of his prey by the Saint, who 
appears with the chalice, and saves the unfortunate prisoner. 
In the centre panel between these two scenes there is a 
graphic picture of the burning of vanities. On one occasion 
S. Bernardino preached against the painting of the faces 
of the women, against their false and counterfeit hair, and 
their licentious behaviour ; and in like manner against the 
games, the cards, and the dice of the men, and against 
charms and things of witchcraft. On the Saturday he 
caused all abominable things to be brought into the piazza, 
where a wooden castle was built and filled with vanities. 



CHURCHES IN WESTERN DISTRICT 141 

On Sunday fire was set to the pile, and the heat was so 
great that no one could come near it. It was the memory 
of some such scene that prompted the design of the central 
panel, where we see the Saint preaching, and groups of 
listeners looking on at the burning vanities, out of which 
the devil springs. 

Agostino (14 1 8-148 1 ) is said to have been a pupil of 
Luca della Robbia, but his art has a distinctly personal 
character. He has no sympathy with mediaeval methods, 
nor has he comprehension of the inherent quality of classi- 
cal art. He is moved by the spirit of the Renaissance 
without being touched by that which is essential in Greek 
sculpture. His style has more affinity indeed with Gothic 
models. He has, however, no great respect for tradition 
of any sort, and seems to live and move in a fresh atmos- 
phere, and with new motives. The larger statues in the 
round are not remarkable, but that of S. Bernardino in 
moderate relief has strength and vitality. It is in the 
figures in low relief, and particularly in the angels and 
the Virtues round the door, that we find something new ; 
a style which shows a powerful individuality, an extra- 
ordinary flexibility of mind, a remarkable capacity for 
making swiftness of thought take visible shape. Subtle 
insight is matched by subtle execution. The long, lithe 
figures, with their flowing draperies, exceed the limits 
of gracefulness ; the pose is sometimes forced, and the 
expression is occasionally exaggerated. But there is a 
joyousness in the life and an abandon in the feeling 
that carries us beyond such criticism. It is a picture of 
asceticism drawn by one who had no sympathy with it, 
and probably no true idea of what asceticism meant. There 
is no reserve or restraint in the method, and yet by some 
magic of brain and hand we get a true impression. The 
" Poverty " of Agostino is no mean associate for her who is 
wedded to St. Francis at Assisi. 

S. Francesco del Prate-.— This is a Gothic church which 
received a Renaissance lining in the eighteenth century, and 
is now being restored to its original state. 



\4~ PERUGIA 

In 1277 it is said that the Peruvians, finding that there 
were several of the Order of St. Francis dwelling in their city, 
and desiring to honour that great and glorious saint, decided 
to dedicate to him the ancient building formerly called Santa 
Susanna, a church that had always been much frequented 
by men of the city. 

During the fourteenth century the Franciscans seem to 
have been held in high esteem by their fellow-citizens, and 
the buildings oi S. Francesco were frequently used by the 
magistrates as places oi meeting while the Palace oi the 
Priors was undergoing alterations. 

In 1310 four oi the Padri of S. Francesco, as thev are 
called by the chronicler, were chosen for the important 
office oi reporting to the Priors the names oi those worthy 
of being elected Podesta. They were sent to the various 
towns of Tuscany, Lombardy, and the March, to record the 
names oi all those who had dignity and dominion, and who 
were most renowned in anus and in letters. From this list 
of names furnished by the brethren the magistrates made 
their choice of the new Podest!\. 

The Frati of the Penitenza of St. Francis, as those were 
called who held the rule of the Saint in devotion but did not 
live the conventual life, also received important commissions 
from the governors of the town. In 1311, for instance, five 
of the brethren were elected by the Priors to collect a special 
tax laid upon the citizens, and a few years later ten were 
appointed to make a valuation of the property oi the town- 
folk. 

The Frati of the Penitenza also took part in the election 
of the Priors, which was often a combination of nomination 
and lot. In 1331 they were elected to assist the twenty-five 
citizens whose duty it was to make up a fresh list of the 
names of those considered to be eligible for election as 
Priors. 

It was in this church that Fra Egidio, one of the first 
followers of St. Francis, was buried, but the sarcophagus 
containing his remains is now in the church attached to the 
University. 



CHURCHES IN WESTERN DISTRICT 143 

The gonfalone in the eastern chapel has already been 
noticed (see the note on " Banners," pp. 117 20). In the crypt 
there are some frescoes of the school of Giotto, repre« 
senting the Sposalizio, the Death of the Virgin, and the 
Crucifixion. 

It was in this church thai the body of Braccio Fortebraccio 
was laid iri great state by the Perugians, Fortebraccio was 
killed in 1424, while fighting near AquiJa, and was buried 
near Rome. His nephew, Niccolo della Stella, a condottiere 
employed by Eugenius IV., caused the bones to be taken up, 
and to be blessed by the Tope and carried to Perugia. 

The citizens were prepared to show the greatest honour 
to their former lord, and the coffin, covered with a blue 
velvet pall, was carried in procession from S. Domenico to 
S. Francesco del Prato. The day was observed as a general 
holiday, and the procession included the consuls of the 
Arts, the Priors, the doctors of the University, escorted by 
forty knights. 



ASSI SI 

INTRODUCTORY NOTE 

THE Town of Assisi stands on the slopes of Monte 
Subasio. Below it runs the mountain torrent of the 
Tescio, which after joining two other little streams 
flows into the Tiber. The broad valley drained by this river 
stretches in each direction as far as we can see. Upon the 
mountain slopes which run steeply down into the plain is a 
succession of towns ; to the west, Perugia, to the south-east, 
Spello, Trevi, and Spoleto, all of them ancient centres of 
human life and human interests. 

Assisi stands on the site of the Roman town of Assisium, 
and there are still remains of Imperial times to be found. 
The Fonim, the Amphitheatre, and the portico of the 
Temple of Minerva, carry us back nearly 2000 years. 

The Empire was succeeded by the Lombard Kingdom, 
and during this period Assisi formed part of the Duchy of 
Spoleto. The Cathedral in Assisi forms an interesting 
record of the effect of the Barbarian conquests of Italy. 
The facade is an example of the style of architecture used 
from the seventh century to the twelfth. It represents the 
period when the northern races were struggling, with only 
partial success, to absorb the traditions of classical art. 

The more complete fusion of the various social forces in 
the country finds its expression in the Gothic church of San 
Francesco, the tomb of St. Francis. 

In the possession of this long story of continuous life, and 
of these buildings which testify to it, Assisi does not differ 
from many other Italian towns, nor is there anything dis- 
tinctive in its commercial, political, or intellectual con- 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE 145 

dition. There is no absorbing interest such as we find in 
the political system of the Venetian nobles, or of the princes 
of the house of Visconti ; there is no record of a keen spirit 
of philosophical inquiry such as existed at Padua and Flo- 
rence ; nor is there any important local school of painters 
or sculptors. 

What we do find is the fulfilment of the spiritual revival 
of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in the life of St. 
Francis. It was here that he was born in 11 82; at S. 
Damiano he received the call to the higher life ; in the 
market-place he renounced not only the pomps and vanities 
of the world, but even the closest of family ties ; in the 
Umbrian valleys he preached the gospel of love and of self- 
denial. On the side of Monte Subasio, high above the 
town, is the place whither he went to gain spiritual strength 
from austerities of more than usual severity. In the little 
cell under the dome of Sta. Maria degli Angeli he died, and 
in the crypt of San Francesco he was buried. 

The new activity which had begun to work in the 
minds of men in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries found 
its artistic expression in Giotto and among his disciples — 
just as its spiritual development is to be seen in St. 
Francis and among his disciples. 

This close relationship between the spiritual life of the 
mendicants and the artistic life of the Giotteschi has pro- 
duced in the church of San Francesco a monument, wonder- 
ful alike for its interpretation of the source of the power 
which St. Francis had over mankind, and for the beauty 
of its expression. 

In an age of constant warfare and strife, and in times 
when the unscrupulous and the strong seemed to command 
the world, the life of St. Francis comes as an entirely new 
experience. He was a man with no advantage of birth, he 
had no intellectual training — he is not even said to have 
been eloquent, and yet he was able to quicken the conscience 
of the western world as none of the great ecclesiastics and 
doctors of the Middle Ages had been able to do. 

We go to Assisi that we may the more fully understand 



i 4 6 ASSISI 

and realise the influences of this man, whose life is witness 
to the power of a simple faith, and a love which knows no 
limitation. 

We go to Assisi to study the rise and progress of Italian 
art, for we find in the single church of S. Francesco examples 
of the beginnings of native style, in which the native workman 
followed in the steps of Byzantine tradition. We find also 
how these beginnings develop into the two great Tuscan 
schools of Florence and Siena, and we can thus study all 
the important influences which lie at the foundation of 
Italian art. 

It is quite possible to visit Assisi and to go round the 
churches of Sta. Maria degli Angeli and S. Francesco in a 
single day, and if no more time is available it is best spent 
in these places. For those who give plenty of time to Assisi 
and the neighbourhood, it is well to begin with the Piazza, 
which was once the Forum of Roman times. 

In it still stands the front of the ancient Temple of 
Minerva, giving a remarkable sense of dignity and style to 
what would otherwise be no more than the market-place of 
an inconsiderable village. Underground in the same piazza 
there are fragments of the buildings of the Forum, and in 
the outskirts of the town there are remains of an amphi- 
theatre. 

The visitor should pass from these traces of Roman life 
to the example of Romanesque life which is found in the 
Duomo. 

We next turn to those monuments which are connected 
with the religious revival of the thirteenth century and 
with the life of St. Francis. 

There are many memorials of varying interest connected 
with him, and the traveller will do well to discriminate 
carefully. 

St. Francis may be viewed as the simple-minded, sym- 
pathetic, self-denying soul, who drew all men to him by the 
sweetness and by the transparent sincerity of his character. 
He was the simple preacher trusting for his daily bread to 
the charity which the love of God inspired in the hearts of 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE 147 

his hearers. He went forth owning nothing ; he gloried in 
the meanness and hardness of his life ; he died lying upon 
ashes. This is the life we can partly realise at the Porziun- 
cola under the great dome of Sta. Maria degli Angeli, and in 
the cells at Carceri. 

But besides this St. Francis there is another, the founder 
of a great order, recognised by the Church as one of its 
most powerful members. He is accepted by the great ones 
of the earth ; he works miracles which gather to Rome the 
spiritual forces of mediaevalism. Popes see visions concern- 
ing him, and they canonise his memory. To his brethren is 
revealed the throne in heaven on which he is to sit. The 
principles which guide his daily life are crystallised into the 
rule of a wide-spreading organisation. 

This is the St. Francis which we find at S. Francesco. 

We could ill part with either of these records, for they set 
before us in a marvellous way the life of the thirteenth and 
fourteenth centuries. 

Nevertheless we shall more truly comprehend them if we 
keep this twofold character in mind. 

We see the simple disciple of poverty in his daily life at 
Sta. Maria degli Angeli and at Carceri. At S. Francesco we 
see how the mediaeval papacy absorbed as much of the 
spirit of the mendicant as lay within its range of perception. 



THE DUOMO 

The Cathedral is dedicated in the name of S. Rufino, an 
Umbrian bishop martyred about the year 239. The bones 
of the martyr were carefully preserved by the faithful in an 
ancient pagan sarcophagus, and were not translated until 
the fifth century. They were then removed to the small 
church which stood upon the site of the present Duomo. 

In 1028 Bishop Ugone made use of an outburst of reli- 
gious fervour among the people to replace the old building 
by a new and much larger church. 

Nothing of this construction can now be seen except the 



1 48 A SSI SI 

crypt, which has been lately excavated. It forms an in- 
teresting record of the architecture of the time. There 
are some traces of fresco paintings, and the columns have 
capitals of tenth and eleventh century workmanship. 

During the excavations a wall was uncovered with a 
carved panel of very early date, probably of the eighth cen- 
tury. It represents a cross with two doves enclosed in a 
triangle, having bunches of grapes and ivy leaves in the 
corners. The wall itself, it is supposed, forms part of the 
original church erected in the fifth century. 

In the crypt there is also the fine sarcophagus in which 
the body of S. Rufino was preserved until the rebuilding of 
the church in the twelfth century. The relief upon the 
front represents Diana and Endymion. 

Returning again to the Piazza, we see in front of us the 
Facade, which was begun in 1134 under the direction of 
Maestro Giovanni da Gubbio. The church had become 
the cathedral, and was dedicated in the names of S. Rufino 
and of Santa Maria. Nothing except the facade was com- 
pleted at this time, and the rest of the church (partially 
restored during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries) was 
finally transformed into a Renaissance building in 1571 by 
Alessi, the Perugian architect. The massive Campanile 
was begun in the eleventh century, and was continued, but 
not entirely finished, in the next. Part of the upper con- 
struction is of modern date. 

The Fagade is a good example of Romanesque building 
in the Lombard style. 

The architectural features are not in themselves particu- 
larly striking, yet the effect of the facade and tower is vener- 
able and picturesque. The impression of great antiquity 
which the building gives is perhaps due to the unusually 
dark colour of the stone, and the archaic look of the sculp- 
tures. The effect of the church on the whole is rugged and 
homely, and one can easily understand how it should have 
been regarded for many generations as the " Domum," the 
house of refuge and of consolation. 

The principal features to be noticed are, the three round- 



THE DUO MO 149 

headed doorways, the row of small columns with a richly 
carved cornice below, and the three beautiful circular windows. 

The subject of the sculptures upon the fac,ade is chiefly 
'he virtue of the Sacraments of the Church. This subject 
is illustrated not by a series of descriptive or historical 
figures, but by symbols. 

The state of man without grace, and the power of the 
sacraments to save him from sin and death, is shown by 
striking images drawn from the animal world. 

The Central Door.— -In the lunette, enclosed in a circular 
aureole, is the figure of Christ, the Ruler of the world, seated 
upon a throne, with the sun and moon on either side. He 
holds the book of the law and points to His mother, as 
though indicating the way of salvation, by means of the In- 
carnation. On the right stands the martyr Bishop Rufino. 
The three small heads between the principal figures are 
supposed to represent the three other martyr saints whose 
relics are preserved in the Duomo, namely, S. Cessidus, 
the son of Rufino, and the two deacons Marcellus and Exu- 
perantius. These three were all put to death during the 
persecutions which were carried on in Umbria in the reign 
of Diocletian. 

Turning now to the mouldings round this doorway. 
The most important one is rounded and has figures in high 
relief. The lower part, on the jambs of the door, is covered 
with animals, tearing, rending, and devouring one another. 
These are types of man in his fallen and unregenerate 
state, a prey to his passions. The same moulding carried 
round the arch over the door has eight groups of small 
figures, which cannot be easily distinguished. A crowned 
woman on a throne, on the left side, probably represents 
the Church. The baptism of a child and of an adult signify 
the means of grace. 

The flat mouldings have designs of a conventionalised 
vine plant, with small figures of men gathering the fruit and 
birds eating the grapes. These designs represent allegori- 
cally the life of the Christian in the Church, nourished by 
its sacraments. 



ISO A SSI SI 

Such a theme is frequently illustrated upon the mouldings 
of Romanesque doorways. Attention should be given to 
the various details, and a comparison made between different 
examples. 

The Side Doorways.— In the lunettes are two striking 
images of the mysteries of the Christian faith. Above the 
door to the right two peacocks drink from a large vase, and 
above the door to the left two lions in a similar fashion are 
placed on either side of a great vessel. 

Such a design, in which animals stand upon either side of 
some sacred object, as, for instance, a tree or an altar, is a 
common means of expressing devotion or worship. It exists 
in the art of many ancient races. 

The sculptures over the doorways at Assisi illustrate the 
efficacy of the sacraments of Baptism and of the Eucharist. 
The large vessel is a figure, not only of the font, but also 
of the chalice. The lion signifies the fortitude which the 
Christian derives from these sources of purification and life. 
The peacock, because of the supposed incorruptibility of its 
flesh, is an emblem of the gift of immortal life received 
through the Christian sacraments. 

The Lintels. — In the centre of each lintel is the Lamb, 
the " Agnus Dei," supported (on the right door) by the four 
symbols of the Evangelists ; (on the left) by two eagles with 
outspread wings. The eagle, on account of its soaring flight 
and its power of looking at the sun, was used as a figure of 
the soul in contemplation. 

On the jambs of the doors and round the lunette are 
symbols representing the Christian in the midst of tempta- 
tions. The cross has the central position in the half circle. 
At the sides of the door are emblems of the baptized soul, 
the fish, the stag, and the dove, combined with symbolical 
figures of the devil represented as a dragon and as a two- 
headed monster. 

The animals sculptured in the round and placed at the 
sides of the doorways as guardians are one of the charac- 
teristic features of Romanesque buildings. 

Those at the side doors are much destroyed, and can no 



THE DUO MO 151 

longer be recognised. Those at the central door are excel- 
lent examples of lions as they were commonly represented 
by the sculptors of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Such 
guardian animals, whether griffins or lions, signify the office 
of the Church in its twofold capacity of protecting the 
humble and punishing the proud. It will be noticed that, 
as a general rule, the animal on the left punishes while the 
one on the right protects. Here the lion on the left devours 
a man who is perhaps intended to represent a soldier, the 
usual emblem of heretical pride. The lion on the right 
protects a sheep, which lies peacefully between the fore-feet of 
the guardian. The sheep is the type of the humble Christian. 

The Sculptured Cornice, underneath the colonnade, has 
a number of fantastic-looking animals, frequently described 
as "grotesques." 

When examined, however, they are found to be of the 
same character as the other parts of the decoration. They 
are illustrations of familiar legends, or symbols of some 
abstract quality. 

Immediately above the central door, for instance, are two 
small winged dragons placed back to back, and hemmed in 
by two stags that attack them on either side. The stag was 
said to be the great enemy of dragons and serpents, killing 
them whenever it could. The stag or hart, on the authority 
of Scripture (Ps. xlii.), was an emblem of the Christian 
thirsting after righteousness. Hence an image of a stag 
destroying a serpent suggested to the mind the Christian 
turning against his vices and destroying them. (A fine 
illustration of the subject will be found on the Church of 
S. Pietro, Spoleto.) 

To the right of these stags, on the cornice, are several 
pairs of animals drinking from a vase. These figures repeat 
the allusion to the sacraments expressed in the lunettes 
above the side doors. The animals here, however, are 
dragons and other monsters, emblems not of the true be- 
liever, but of those who are living in mortal sin and yet dare 
to remain in the Church. 

The Round Windows.— The symbols of the four Evan- 



152 Assist 

gelists are placed round about the central window, and 
below are the figures of three men who appear to sustain the 
weight of the circle. 

The window may be intended to stand for the globe of 
the world, and the three men perhaps indicate the three 
parts of the earth, namely, Europe, Asia, and Africa. 

The round window to the left has a little figure of the 
Archangel Michael in the centre. On the outside of the 
circle, on the wall, are two statues probably representing 
St. Peter and St. Paul. 

(A more detailed study of the figures upon the facade 
will be found in Canon Elisei's Studio sulla Cathedrale, 
Assisi, 1893.) 

The Interior. — Close to the entrance is the round font in 
which the citizens of Assisi for many generations have been 
baptized, including St. Francis, Sta. Chiara, and her sister 
Agnes. Here also, in 1195, the Emperor Frederick II. 
received baptism when three years of age. He was living 
at that time under the charge of his tutor, Conrad of Swabia, 
Duke of Spoleto. 

In the nave, in front of the bishop's throne, is a triptych 
by Niccolo da Foligno (working between 1430-1502), a pupil 
of Benozzo Gozzoli. It represents the Virgin and Child 
with four saints. The first to the right is S. Rufino, the 
bishop, beside him is the martyr Exuperantius. On the left 
stands S. Pietro Damiano, who wrote the life of S. Rufino. 
He holds a book, and his neighbour, the deacon Marcellus, 
presents an inkpot to the author, having in his other hand 
a scroll with the first words of the Gospel of John. This 
scroll is significant of one of the duties of the deacon's office 
as reader of the Scriptures. The figures of the saints are 
grave and dignified, and there are no trifling accessories or 
studies of still life introduced to disturb the serious character 
of the picture. The Predella has the story of the martyrdom 
of the patron saint in three scenes. In the first we see the 
holy man subjected to the flames, but remaining uninjured. 
He was then thrown into the river Chiagio and drowned. 
It is said that when the body was recovered a lily sprang 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF ST. FRANCIS 153 

from the mouth and described how the martyr had died. 
The third scene represents the translation of the body into 
the city. 

The relics of the saint are preserved in a black marble 
urn made in 1850. The choir stalls, ornamented with intar- 
siatura, were executed in 1520 by Giovanni da S. Severino. 



MONUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE 
LIFE OF ST. FRANCIS 

Chiesa Nuova 

A small street leading out of the southern corner of the 
Piazza Vittorio Emmanuele takes us to the Chiesa Nuova, a 
church raised on the site of the house which belonged to 
Pietro Bernardone, the father of St. Francis. 

A portion of a wall, with an arch above a door, are shown 
as a part of the old dwelling-house. A niche in this wall is 
pointed out as the place where St. Francis was shut up by 
his father. 

In the alley on the north side of the church is the little 
Cappella di S. Francesco, built on the site of a stable where 
St. Francis was born. The legend that his birth took place 
in a stable is probably due to the parallel which was drawn 
between the life of the saint and that of Christ. 

Sta. Maria degli Angeli 

The Church of Sta. Maria degli Angeli, which forms 
such an imposing feature in the vale of Spoleto, is only a 
few minutes' walk from the station at Assisi. 

Under the great dome are two buildings of supreme inte- 
rest in the history of St. Francis, viz., the chapel of the 
Porziuncola, or the " little portion," and the cell in which the 
saint died. 

According to tradition the Chapel of the Porziuncola 
was originally built by four pilgrims, so that they might 
place in it a relic of the tomb of the Virgin which had been 
given to them by St. Cyril of Jerusalem. This first chapel 



154 ASSISI 

of the pilgrims is supposed to have been built in A.D. 352, 
and its name, St. Mary of the Angels, has been attributed 
to the picture which they caused to be painted in it — an 
Assumption of the Virgin surrounded by angels. 

Another account is that the name arose because the songs 
of angels were often heard in the place, and especially on 
the night of the birth of St. Francis, September 26, 1 182. 

In 516 St. Benedict found the first sanctuary abandoned, 
and he is said to have rebuilt it for some brethren of his 
order. According to some accounts it received the name 
of Porziuncola, or " little portion," as being so small and 
unimportant among the Benedictine foundations. 

After the restoration of S. Damiano Francis began to 
work on the chapel of the Porziuncola, and when the brethren 
increased in number he begged the abbot of Monte Subasio 
to let him have it, so that there might be a place in which 
the brethren could say the office. 

In so far as such an one could be said to have a home, the 
neighbourhood of the Porziuncola was the home of Francis, 
and he always desired that this chapel should be a pattern 
in its poverty for all the other places of the brethren. 

The Life of St. Francis at Sta. Maria degli Angeli.— 
The earliest disciple that St. Francis had was Bernard of 
Quintavalle, and it is told in the Fioretti how their first act 
of companionship, after hearing mass together, was to open 
the missal and take counsel from the passages they found. 

Three times this was done, and their rule of life was 
founded on the three messages : " If thou wilt be perfect go 
and sell that thou hast and give to the poor ; " " Take 
nothing for your journey, neither stave nor scrip, neither 
bread neither money ;" and lastly, " If any man will come 
after Me, let him deny himself and take up his cross and 
follow Me." On this " firm rock of the exceeding great 
humility and poverty of the Son of God " was built the fabric 
of the Franciscan order. The character of St. Francis was 
too simple, too direct, and too shrewd to allow him to bring 
this teaching into conformity with the ordinary methods of 
mankind. He accepted the sayings in their plain and literal 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF ST. FRANCIS 155 

meaning, and whatever stood in the way of their realisation 
he put away from him. Property meant servitude to mate- 
rial things ; it caused a diversion of energy from the true 
aim of life ; it brought with it temptation to covetousness and 
avarice ; it was a hindrance to that true liberty of soul in 
which alone the spiritual life can thrive. 

Learning was even more dangerous than riches. In get- 
ting knowledge mind and body were tempted beyond the 
way of humility ; dependence on the understanding, even if 
it were of Scripture, would in time of trial lead only to cold- 
ness and emptiness. The body also was a source of tempta- 
tion. Superfluity of food was a hindrance to body and soul ; 
and, on the other hand, too much abstinence was a tempta- 
tion into which St. Francis admitted he had himself fallen. 

Patient and loving endurance of wrong, an obedience 
" wherein flesh and blood have naught of their own," poverty 
that leaves the soul a true spiritual freedom, and humility 
leading to the knowledge and understanding of God, such 
were the means by which St. Francis strove to imitate the 
life of Christ. 

He never shrank from his fellow-men, he did not fear 
contact with the world, he only desired to strip life of all 
that obscures the real aim in living. 

Many brethren joined St. Francis, although few followed 
him. From the first difficulties arose : some found the rule 
too severe, and others who felt a true vocation could not 
reconcile the strongly developed personality of the religion 
of St. Francis with the claims of the hierarchy and the 
system of the Church. Yet he was always ready to be in 
subjection to the clergy. He refused to ask for a privilege 
to preach, he bade his followers wait in humility until they 
were called ; and in regard to doctrine he was a faithful son 
of the Church. 

But a man who would take no thought for the morrow, 
who would own neither breviary nor psalter, who rejected 
learning, and begged his daily bread, who refused to accept 
the rule of St. Benedict, or St. Augustine, or St. Bernard, 
and who would follow only the way that had been shown 



156 ASSISI 

to him by the Lord, must have been a severe trial to the 
faith of politicians and churchmen like Innocent III. and 
the Cardinal Ugolino. The latter, who became Pope as 
Gregory IX., was deeply touched by the spirituality and 
simplicity of St. Francis, nevertheless he spared no pains 
to bring the brethren within the influence and order of 
ecclesiastical authority. * 

The struggle was too much for St. Francis, and in 1220 he 
gave up the rule of the order to Pietro di Catana. In 1221 
Pietro died, and was succeeded by Brother Elias. In this 
man was mingled a true love of St. Francis, with a worldly 
spirit altogether at variance with that of his master. Thus 
before the death of its founder the order had lost its unity 
of purpose. 

The ecclesiastically-minded Cardinal and the worldly- 
minded Brother Elias have raised their monument to the 
founder in the church of S. Francesco. But if we would 
realise the life of the simple brother we must seek its 
memorials in the humble chapel of the Porziuncola, at S. 
Damiano, and at the Carceri. 

It was in the chapel of the Porziuncola that the second 
order of the Franciscans originated in the dedication of 
Sta. Chiara. Having been touched by the preaching of 
Francis, she left her father's house, and in the Holy Week 
of 12 1 2 she was received by him in the little chapel. Her 
hair was cut off, and she gave herself as a servant of the poor. 

Years afterwards, desiring to eat with Francis, Sta. Chiara 
met her spiritual father in front of the Porziuncola, and for 
the first beginning of refreshment, Francis spoke of God 
with such sweetness and so marvellously that they were 
wrapt in contemplation. A sign ' of the presence of the 
Spirit was given to the people of the country, who saw Sta. 
Maria degli Angeli, and the dwelling-place of the brethren 
and the wood about it, all in flames. The spot is marked 
by a pillar near the cell where St. Francis died. 

Once again the story of Sta. Chiara is concerned with the 
Porziuncola. At the season of Christmas she was sick 
and not able to go to office in the church at S. Damiano, 



• MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF ST. FRANCIS 157 

and by the will of Christ she was miraculously carried to 
the chapel of the brethren, where she was present at Matins 
and received Communion, and was borne back to her bed. 

When the Abbot of Monte Subasio granted the chapel 
to Francis, he made it a condition that it should be the 
head place of the order, and it was here that the General 
Chapters were held. 

On one famous occasion, probably in 12 19, five thousand 
brethren were gathered, those of the different provinces 
each having their places. The writer of the Fioretti 
describes them as spending their time in reasoning of God, 
in prayer, and in works of charity. They said the office, 
they lamented their sins, they discoursed of the salvation 
of the soul. And all was done in such silence and with 
so much discretion that there was no noise. When the 
Cardinal Ugolino saw the gathering, he said, " Truly this is 
the camp and the army of the Cavaliers of God." St. 
Francis bade that none should take heed for food, and the 
people of the country brought all that they had need of. 
St. Dominic, who was there, knelt before Francis and con- 
fessed and repented, inasmuch as he had judged hardly 
concerning the carelessness for the food of so many people, 
and he took for himself and his brethren the rule of Holy 
Poverty. 

There was, however, another side to the picture which we 
find in the " Mirror of Perfection." Speaking of what was 
probably the same chapter, the writer says that some of 
the brethren urged the Cardinal to the end that Francis 
should follow the counsel of the wiser brethren, and that 
they should live according to the rule of St. Benedict or St. 
Augustine. When the Cardinal admonished Francis, he 
answered, " The Lord hath called me by the way of 
simplicity and humility, and this way hath He pointed out 
to me in truth for myself, and for them that are willing to 
believe me and to imitate me. . . ." (See " Mirror of Per- 
fection," 68.) 

Five years after this Francis with his brethren came back 
from Monte della Vernia, where he had seen the vision of 



158 ASSISI 

the Crucified One. As they came near to the place Brother 
Leo saw a cross going before St. Francis. When he 
rested it rested, and when he went on it went with him, 
and from it there shone on the face of Francis a bright 
light, and the vision was with him till they entered the 
place of the brethren at Sta. Maria degli Angeli. 

The present Church of Sta. Maria degli Angeli was 
built from designs by Vignola, and the first stone was laid 
in 1569. It covers two buildings, the Porziuncola and the 
cell in which St. Francis died. 

The visitor is generally taken in the first place to the 
Sacristy. The walls of this room are panelled with carved 
wood-work of the sixteenth century, and in one corner there 
is a design intended to represent the Sepulchre at Jerusalem. 
There is a small half-length figure of Christ by Perugino, 
and there are two small paintings by Guido Reni. From the 
sacristy a short passage leads to the chapel of S. Carlo Bor- 
romeo. Here there is a rude picture of St. Francis, attri- 
buted to Giunta Pisano ; it is painted on a piece of wood 
which is said to have formed part of the bed of St. Francis. 

From the chapel of *S. Carlo Borromeo we pass along an 
arcade to a space of open garden ground ; on the left grow 
the roses of St. Francis. 

The miracle of the roses happened in January. St. Francis 
had suffered much from temptation, and so that the flesh 
might be subdued, he went out and rolled among thorns and 
briars. Suddenly they burst out into flower, and ever since 
they have grown without thorns. Two angels led him back 
to the altar, where he had a vision of Christ and Madonna 
seated on their throne in heaven among many angels. His 
prayer was heard, and indulgence was granted to those who 
are truly penitent and who visit the church. 

From this garden the visitor enters the Chapel of the 
Roses. The inner part, which covers the grotto where Francis 
lived, was built by S. Bonaventura ; the outer part was built 
by S. Bernardino. The whole contains frescoes painted by 
Tiberio d'Assisi, and though the pictures are not remark- 
able works of art, they harmonise with their surroundings. 

I 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF ST. FRANCIS 159 

The frescoes on the right in the chapel of S. Bernardino 
are : — 

1. St. Francis rolls in the thorns ; two angels appear to 
him. 

2. St. Francis is led by two angels back to the church. 
The pictures on the left are : — 

3. St. Francis prays to Christ for an indulgence. 

4. St. Francis presents roses at the altar, and sees a vision 
of Christ and Madonna. 

5. The indulgence is confirmed by Honorius III. 

6. St. Francis, accompanied by seven bishops, preaches 
the indulgence. 

In the chapel of S. Bonaventura, which is built over the 
grotto, Tiberio has painted St. Francis with twelve disciples. 
The altar is dedicated in the names of five Franciscans who 
suffered in Morocco. While the martyrdom was taking 
place it was miraculously revealed to St. Francis as he knelt 
in prayer. 

In the grotto below the altar, where St. Francis prayed, 
there are preserved two logs, part of the pulpit from which 
St. Francis preached the indulgence. 

The visitor now re-enters the church. In the choir, to 
the left, is a door leading to a small choir, where a pulpit of 
S. Bernardino is preserved. Near this entrance, in the choir 
itself, is an elaborate sixteenth-century pulpit, with confes- 
sionals for various languages below. 

Round the pulpit the following subjects are carved : — 

1. St. Francis rolls in the thorns. 

2. St. Francis and seven bishops preach the indulgence. 

3. St. Francis, when he presents the roses, sees the vision 
of Christ. 

4. Honorius III. confirms the indulgence. 

5. St. Francis descends into Purgatory to release the souls 
of brethren who are suffering. 

6. Death of St. Francis. 

To the right of the choir, opposite to this pulpit, is the 
room in which St. Francis died. On the outside is a 
panel painted by Giunta Pisano; it is said to have been 



160 A SSI SI 

part of the wooden cover which was over the body when it 
was carried up to Assisi. On the altar is a figure of the 
saint, worked by Luca della Robbia from a mask taken 
from the face of St. Francis. 

On the walls are frescoes by Lo Spagna representing the 
twelve first disciples and six other famous Franciscans. In 
a tabernacle to the right of the entrance is preserved the 
cord of St. Francis marked with blood when he received the 
stigmata, and also a piece of the habit of S. Ponaventura. 

In the chapel of the relics, to the right of the entrance 
into the sacristy, is a crucifix by Giunta Pisano. 

In a chapel to the left of the nave is a fine piece of della 
Robbia ware. The centre of the composition is a Corona- 
tion of the Virgin. To the left St. Francis receives the 
stigmata, and to the right St. Jerome has a vision of Christ 
on the cross. In the predella there is (i) an Annunciation, 
(2) the Nativity, (3) the Adoration of the Magi. 

The chapel of the Porziuncola itself stands under the great 
dome of the church. The fresco over the entrance door is 
a mannered picture by Overbeck, representing Christ and 
Madonna in heaven surrounded by angels. In a corre- 
sponding position on the east end of the chapel is a fresco 
by Perugino, restored in modern times. We see the up- 
rights of two crosses, but no actual crucifixion. Madonna 
is supported by attendants, St. Mary Magdalene looks 
upwards, and St. Francis kneels and clings to the foot of 
the cross. 

On the right wall of the chapel, on the outside, there are 
remains of a fresco and an inscription to the memory of 
Pietro di Catana, who died in 122 1. So many miracles were 
worked by its virtues that Francis ordered that no more 
should be done, and after that its power ceased. 



About two miles from Sta. Maria degii Angeli, on the 
road to Spello, there is the church which has been known as 
that of Rivo Torto, the place to which St. Francis and his 
brethren went on their return from receiving the approba- 



MONUMENTS OB LIFE OB ST. FRANCIS 161 

tion of Pope Innocent III. In the cburcti some small cells 

arc shown which hate been said to be those used by St. 
Francis. It is now believed thai this church is not the 
place connected with the life of the brethren. 

The Church 01 s. damiano 

[The Church of S. Damiano is an almost unchanged record 
of the primitive surroundings amongst which St. Francis 

and his early followers passed their lives. 

The simple chapel with its rough coarse furniture and the 
tiny dwelling- rooms attached are just such as they were 
when Sta. Chiara and the women who followed her example 
lived here a life of holy poverty. The followers of Francis 
were not at first divided into orders, and there was no 
definite organisation. The life which the master himself 
led was the pattern followed by the disciples, and simple 
rules were given to them by him to meet the conditions as 
they arose. 

S. Damiano is associated with two momentous ex- 
periences in the spiritual life of St. Francis. It was 
here that he first devoted himself to the service of God, and 
it was in the work of restoring the ruined church that he 
made himself equal to the humblest. 

During the time when he had become dissatisfied with his 
way of life, but had not resolved to separate himself from it, 
he went frequently to pray in the old chapel. While kneel- 
ing before a Byzantine crucifix he believed that he heard a 
voice saying, " Francis, go and restore My church." 

Obeying the command literally, the young man sold some 
of his father's cloth in the market at Foligno and came back 
to S. Damiano with the money, which he offered to the 
priest. 

This act was decisive in separating him from his old life, 
for in order to escape from the anger of his father he left his 
home and took refuge in the chapel. When summoned by 
the magistrates of Assisi, at the instance of his father, he 
replied that as he had become the servant of the Church 



1 62 ASSISI 

it was before the ecclesiastical tribunal that he should 
appear. 

The bishop advised him to renounce all that he owned 
from his parents. Francis, fulfilling the injunction to the 
letter, stripped off his clothes and laid them at his father's 
feet, with the words, " Now I can say, ' Our Father, who art 
in heaven.' " 

Soon after this he began the labour of restoring the Chapel 
of S. Damiano. He went from door to door begging for 
money or for materials for the building, carrying the stones 
which were given to him upon his shoulders. The work of 
restoration was finished about the year 1208. S. Damiano 
is associated not only with St. Francis but with Sta. 
Chiara, the first woman who adopted the Franciscan rule. 

The chapel had been given to St. Francis by the Benedic- 
tine monks of Monte Subasio, and it became the home of 
Sta. Chiara soon after her act of renunciation in 12 12. 
Within a short time she was joined by a few other women, 
and they received from St. Francis a rule of life very similar 
to that which was given to the brethren. St. Francis under- 
took that he and his followers should supply all the wants 
of the sisters, either by their labour or by the gathering 
of alms. In exchange, Sta. Chiara and her companions 
rendered service to the brethren by tending the sick and by 
making fair linen cloth for the furnishing of the altars of 
poor churches. 

S. Damiano preserves various records of the life of labour 
and devotion spent by the "Poor Clares" within its walls, 
but there is no visible record of the visit which St. Francis 
paid when he composed the "Canticle of the Sun." It 
was in 1224 that the Saint, on his return from Monte della 
Vernia, spent some weeks in a little reed hut which Sta. 
Chiara had built for him in the garden. 

Francis was suffering not only in body but also in mind. 
He was weighed down by illness, his sight was almost gone, 
and he was burdened with a sense of discouragement. The 
generalship of the order had been resigned to others two or 
three years before, and Francis now found himself in con- 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF ST. FRANCIS 163 

tinual conflict with the more politic and more worldly 
schemes of the leaders. In the garden of S. Damiano, in 
the midst of the familiar scenes of his first enthusiasm, 
something of his old fervid joy in living came back to him, 
and he composed the "Canticle of the Sun." In this song 
he praises God for the goodness of living, for the sun, moon, 
stars, water, wind, fire, and earth. We and they are parts 
of the same creation. They are our helpful brothers and 
sisters. He thanks God also for His love and mercy, and 
lastly for His gift of our sister Death. 

The author, well pleased with his song, began to lay plans 
how some of the brethren should be sent out as " Joculatores 
Domini," minstrels of God, and should sing the praises of the 
created things everywhere. After having preached and sung 
he wished that they should say to the people, " All the pay- 
ment that we want.is that you should persevere in penitence."] 

The church stands on the slope of the hill about half a 
mile beyond the walls of the town. The approach to the 
inconspicuous building is by a steep path through an olive 
garden. 

There is a little courtyard in front of the church, and 
entering it, we see in front of us on the end wall of the 
building a damaged fresco illustrating an incident in the 
life of Sta. Chiara. 

In 1234 a body of Saracen troops, led by one of the 
generals of Frederick II., passed through Umbria, attacking 
and pillaging the towns as they went. On their way to 
Assisi they came to the convent of S. Damiano, and began 
to assail the building. The soldiers were already mounting 
the ladders raised against the walls when Sta. Chiara, carry- 
ing the Pix containing the Host in front of her, appeared 
at the little window. Kneeling down she began to sing, 
" Thou hast rebuked the heathen, Thou hast put out their 
name for ever and ever." At the sound of her fearless 
voice the assailants, abashed and discomfited, withdrew 
from the attack and left both the convent and the city 
unmolested. 

Under the portico, to the right of the entrance into the 



1 64 A SSI SI 

church, is a chapel which was added in the sixteeenth 
century, with frescoes by Tiberio d'Assisi. 

The picture represents the Virgin and Child enthroned, 
with S. Bernardino and St. Jerome on the left, and St. 
Francis and Sta. Chiara on the right. The small figure of 
a nun kneeling beside Sta. Chiara is said to represent her 
sister Agnes. S. Bernardino of Siena came to Assisi in 1425. 
He preached to large crowds of the inhabitants, exhorting 
them particularly against the love of personal adornment 
and of games of chance. A monogram of the name of Jesus 
was carried in procession through the streets, and the towns- 
people laid aside all work to attend the sermons of the saint. 

Entering the church we find a small building with a low 
vaulted roof. There are damaged frescoes upon the smoke- 
blackened walls, of small value as works of art. Above the 
altar, which stands against the wall to the left on entering, 
is a cupboard with a number of relics of Sta. Chiara. 

The censer and chalice used by her and the bell which 
summoned the sisters to office are shown. They are of the 
simplest description, the fit possessions of one who carried 
out the ideal of holy poverty consistently through life. On 
the shelf is one of the loaves of bread which she blessed 
when Innocent IV. came to visit her. The cupboard also 
contains a breviary written by Frate Leone, and a bit of the 
cord of St. Francis. 

A small chapel leading out of the nave on the right was 
added in the seventeenth century. It contains a carved 
crucifix by Innocenzo da Palermo (1635). 

Behind the high altar is the old choir of Sta. Chiara, 
with the primitive wooden stalls and reading-desk. A list 
of the names of the sisters in the time of St. Francis is shown 
here, and a hole in the wall near the altar is pointed out as 
the place where St. Francis hid when he was pursued by 
his father. 

A number of small rooms with low roofs and worn brick 
floors lead out of the choir. A stone upon the wall of one 
of the passages marks the burial-place of the first followers 
of Sta. Chiara. 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF ST. FRANCIS 165 

Upstairs, the oratory is of the same simple and primitive 
character. There are no works of art to be seen here of 
any value ; there is only the faithful record of a life of volun- 
tary self-denial. In the month of May, the year 1228, 
Gregory IX. came to Assisi for the purpose of arranging 
the preliminaries for the canonisation of St. Francis, and 
turned aside on his journey to visit Sta. Chiara at S. 
Damiano. The Pope had already addressed many letters 
of encouragement to the foundress of the " Poor Clares," for 
whom he evidently entertained a warm admiration. At the 
same time he persistently tried to persuade Sta. Chiara to 
modify the rule of living without possessions. He endea- 
voured also to restrict the intercourse which existed between 
the brothers and sisters, and forbade the Frati to preach in 
S. Damiano without the permission of the Holy See. Sta. 
Chiara, however, maintained an uninterrupted friendship with 
those of the brethren who had shared with her the disciple's 
enthusiastic belief in their master's ideal. When she died 
in the convent in 1253, three of the brethren stood beside 
her death-bed. 



The Hermitage of the Carceri 

This small convent is built on the sides of Monte Subasio. 
The path leaves Assisi by the gate at the end of the town 
farthest from S. Francesco, and from this point one or one 
and a half hours ought to be allowed for the walk. 

Originally a little chapel was built here by the Benedic- 
tines, and since the time of Francis a network of small 
chapels, a few sleeping cells, and a refectory have existed. 
In the woods round about there are caves associated with 
the names of the early Franciscans, and to these places they 
retired for solitary contemplation. Perhaps here more than 
elsewhere it is possible to realise the daily life of the early 
Franciscans, and nowhere else is the sense of primitive sim- 
plicity so complete. 

The visitor enters a small courtyard, in the centre of which 
is a well said to have been built by S. Bernardino of Siena, 



1 66 A SSI SI 

the spring itself being the result of a miracle worked by 
St. Francis. From this court we enter the chapel called 
after S. Bernardino ; it is some 21 feet long by 16 feet broad. 
In it are preserved relics of St. Francis : — 

1. The tabernacle for the Sacrament used in his time. 

2. A chalice of the same period. 

3. A pillow used by St. Francis. 

4. The cord of Brother Egidio. 

5. The cross and hair shirt of St. Francis. 

At the end of the chapel are five little stalls, the second of 
which is traditionally assigned to St. Francis. 

From this comparatively large chapel we pass into the 
Cappella Primitiva. This is said to have been the first 
chapel used by St. Francis ; it has no window, and is only 
about 12 feet long by 6 feet broad. 

To the left, three steps lead up into the choir of S Ber- 
nardino ; round it there are twelve stalls, and besides these 
there is room for nothing but a reading stand. The sacristy 
which serves for all these chapels is about 6 feet by 4 feet 
6 inches, and it is lighted by a window no larger than a pane 
of glass. At the entrance to the sacristy there is a trap- 
door, and passing down about fifteen steps the chamber of 
St. Francis is reached. Like many other parts of the build- 
ing, it rests on the live rock. The space occupied by the bed 
is shown. The room measures about 9 feet by 6 feet. Next 
to this bed space is an oratory where St. Francis prayed. 

The doors by which these chambers are entered are so 
small that no ordinary person can stand upright, and the 
width is strictly in proportion. Outside the oratory is an 
opening leading down into the gorge below it ; it was by 
this passage that the devil escaped when he tempted St. 
Francis and was beaten off by the saint. 

Returning to the monastery the small bed-chambers built 
against the live rock may be seen. Below these is the refec- 
tory. At the end of one of the tables the place of S. Bernar- 
dino is shown. The wooded gorge in which the conventual 
buildings stand is most picturesque, and the views over the 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 167 

vale of Spoleto, both from the convent and from the path 
leading to it, are exceedingly fine. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 
General Notes upon the Building 

Francis died on the 4th October 1226. It is said that 
he desired to be buried on the hill where criminals were 
executed, known as the Colle del Inferno. The story does 
not seem to rest on sound authority, but the fact that such 
a legend became current shows the popular estimate of 
the desire which Francis had for self-abasement. 

On the day after his death the body was carried by way 
of S. Damiano up to.Assisi and laid in S. Giorgio, now 
part of the Church of Sta. Chiara. Francis was canonised 
by Pope Gregory IX. on the 16th July 1228, and next day 
the foundation of the Church of S. Francesco is said to have 
been laid. The first architect was a certain Jacobus or 
Giacomo. He is supposed to have been in the service of 
Frederick II., who was friendly with Frate Elias, the 
General of the Franciscan Order. The brethren worked 
at the building, and under the energetic direction of the 
General it was so far finished in 1230, that a general 
chapter of the order was held in the convent, and the body 
of St. Francis was translated from S. Giorgio on the 
24th May. It is said that, in order to prevent a forcible 
seizure, it was planned between the magistrates and Frate 
Elias that at a certain point in the procession soldiers 
should surround the coffin and hurry it into the church, 
excluding all but the brethren. Whether this be true or 
not the place of burial was known to very few. In the 
year 181 8 the tomb was discovered and opened, and the 
remains of the body were found. In 1232 Filippo da 
Campello appears as architect of the building. He was 
still at work in 1253. In 1236 it is recorded that Giunta 
Pisano painted a great Cross with Frate Elias at the foot ; 
but this has disappeared. In 1239 the building of the 



1 68 ASSISI 

Campanile was sufficiently advanced to receive a bell 
made by Bartolomeus, a Pisan ; it bore the inscription 
"Christ conquers, Christ reigns, Christ rules." In 1246 
the Commune fixed the limits of the piazza in front of the 
church so as to prevent houses being built nearer to it. 
In 1253 Pope Innocent IV. consecrated the great altar 
of the lower church. It is formed of a single stone 
brought from Constantinople. The lower church as built 
by Frate Elias consisted of a simple nave, transepts, and 
shallow choir, following the plan of the upper church as 
we see it to-day. In the fourteenth century side chapels 
were added and the church assumed the form that it 
now has. 

In the beginning of the fourteenth century (about 13 10) 
two brothers of the Orsini family, Napoleone and Giovanni, 
built the chapels at the ends of the transepts, viz. the 
Chapel of St. Nicholas or of the Holy Sacrament, and 
the Chapel of St. John the Baptist. 

Gentile Partino da Montefiore (Cardinal 1298) was the 
founder of the Chapel of St. Martin and the Chapel of St. 
Louis the King opposite to it. 

The Chapel of St. Mary Magdalene was founded, or 
perhaps only finished, by Tebaldo Pontano di Todi, who 
was Bishop of Assisi from 1314 to 1329. 

The Chapel of St. Catherine or del Crocefisso is said to 
have been built by Cardinal Egidio Albornoz in 1353. 

Pope Sixtus IV. (1471-1484) had been General of the 
Order before he became Pope, and his reign was a time 
of activity at S. Francesco. Under the General Sansoni 
there was a good deal of restoration, and the vestibule to 
the lower church was added. The small burial-ground 
opening out of the Chapel of St. Anthony the Abbot was 
also built in 1478. 



The Church of S. Francesco has its choirs to the west 
and its main entrances at the eastern end. For the 

purposes of description, however, it has been thought best 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 169 

to consider the orientation from an ecclesiastical point of 
view rather than from the natural. The choirs, therefore, 
are treated as if they were at the east end, and when the 
visitor stands in the nave and looks to the altar, the 
transepts and chapels to the right hand are called southern, 
those to the left northern. The plan of the upper church 
is too simple to need any detailed description ; that of the 
lower is more difficult. On the ground plan the chapels, 
&c, are indicated by Roman numerals. It will save time 
if the traveller will begin by going round the church, using 
the Ground Plan II. to familiarise himself with the various 
points of interest, somewhat as follows : — 

The visitor enters the lower church by the doorway 
Of 1478 (XI. on Plan II.). On the vault of the arch over- 
head there is a worthless picture of St. Francis in Glory. 
The significant part of the legend attached to it may be 
rendered : " Stay thy steps to rejoice, O traveller. Now 
thou drawest near to the hill of Paradise. This is the 
glorious Basilica dedicated to the divine Francis of Assisi, 
the restorer of the falling Church of Christ." 

To the right of the entrance transept there is — 

1. A Gothic tomb with an urn supposed to be that of 
Catherine, daughter of the Queen of Cyprus. 

2. A Gothic tomb supposed to be that of Hecuba, Queen 
of Cyprus, who died in Assisi in 1240. 

3. The Chapel of St. Anthony the Abbot, containing the 
tombs of a Count of Spoleto and his son. Out of this 
chapel a door leads to a small graveyard (1478) surrounded 
by cloisters. The entrance transept is closed by the 
Chapel of St. Catherine or del Crocefisso (X. on the plan). 

Returning to the entrance door (XI. on the plan), there is 
to the left— 

1. The small chapel of St. Sebastian. 

2. A fresco attributed to Ottaviano Nelli. Madonna is 
seated on a throne, on the pedestals of which are the four 
cardinal virtues. To the left stand SS. Francis and 
Anthony the Abbot, and to the right a bishop. 



I JO 



A SSI SI 



Passing into the nave the first chapel to the left is 
that of St. Martin (XIII. on Plan II.). The first to the 
right, that of St. Louis the King, or St. Stephen (VIII. on 
the plan). The second chapel to the left is that of St. 




Plan II.— Ground Plan of the Lower Church of San Francesco, Assisi 

Peter of Alcantara (XIV. on the plan). The second chapel 
to the right is that of St. Anthony of Padua (VII. on the 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 171 

plan). The pulpit (XV. on the plan) occupies the next 
bay to the left. The third chapel to the right is that of 
St. Mary Magdalene (VI. on the plan). 

We next pass into the transepts, in the centre of which 
(I. on the plan) stands the High Altar. Turning to the 
right into the southern transept there is the altar originally 
dedicated to Maria Virgine Immacolata (II. on the plan). 
Behind it five of the first disciples of St. Francis are buried. 
The southern transept is closed by the Chapel of St. 
Nicholas or the Chapel of the Holy Sacrament (V. on the 
plan). Returning to the high altar and passing to the left 
into the northern transept there is the altar originally 
dedicated to St. John the Evangelist (III. on the plan). 
Behind it are buried five of the early disciples. Near to 
this altar is the entrance to the sacristy, and the stair 
which leads to the upper church. 

We have in the next place to examine the various systems 
of frescoes throughout the upper and lower churches. 
Those in the upper are distinguished by letters of the 
alphabet, those in the lower church by Arabic numerals. 

The paintings have such various interests that it has been 
thought best in the first place to group them according to 
the artistic influences which they appear to represent, 
and then to suggest the probable significance of the various 
parts of the work in the light of the ideas of the time, and 
particularly with regard to the theories of St. Francis and 
his disciples. In addition to such general considerations 
some description of the frescoes which appear to be of most 
interest has been attempted. 

Artistic Influences 

The overthrow of classical civilisation in Western Europe 
in the fifth and sixth centuries of our era destroyed for a 
time all possibility of a native art in Italy. Throughout the 
turmoil and desolation of the Gothic, the Lombard, and 
the Frankish conquests the Church alone maintained any 
semblance of Imperial traditions. It was the Church also 



171 ASSISl 

that first felt the want of an art that might enable hoi to 
christianise the newly converted barbarians. 

When dogma could not be expressed in terms of the 
written word, it became necessary to make an appeal to the 

eye and to the feelings. 

For many centuries the Church had to depend on the 
East for the pictures, the mosaic, and the sculpture by 
means of which the Christian faith was made familiar to the 

barbarians. Constantinople was more fortunate than Rome, 
tor from the foundation of the city up to the time of the 
fourth crusade (1204) 00 foreign invaders entered her gates. 
There was thus a continuous tradition from the da\s of 
Constantine onwards. It was to men trained in this civilisa- 
tion that Western Europe mainly owed the revival of art. 

The process of recovery was very slow, but in the twelfth 
century there are unmistakable signs that the barbarian eon 
querors of Southern Europe had begun to learn effectively 
from their Greek teachers. 

In sculpture the first advance was made in France, and in 
painting in Italy. 

During the thirteenth century there is evidence that the 
descendants o( Roman and barbarian had become a new 
race full of energy and power, destined to transform the 
world. 

It is in the Church oi San Francesco that the first efforts 
of this new race in the art of painting may be most easily 
studied. We can see here how a new style grew up in 
which new views of life were depicted bv new methods. 

Up to the end of the thirteenth century the native painter 
depended upon Byzantine custom, which he frequently com- 
prehended in a very incomplete manner. 

At the beginning of the fourteenth century Tuscan art 
became a free and natural exponent of the nation which had 
been fused out of many generations ot Etruscan, latin, and 
barbarian ancestors. Yasari says that GiottO banished the 
rude Greek manner. It could be more truly said that he 
banished the rude native manner. 

In the following list of the frescoes in S. Francesco, an 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 173 

attempt is made to place them in order of their tendency 
towards the full development of Florentine art. 

It begins with those frescoes which show most Byzantine 
influence. These are followed by the works of artists who 
understood neither the good of the old tradition nor the 
force of the new life. This crude native art is followed by 
the Tuscan frescoes. These are arranged under the two 
schools of Siena and Florence, the latter being regarded as 
the most complete expression of the new manner. The list 
is not chronological, for there are no documents known at 
present by which the dates of the frescoes can be fixed, nor 
does it indicate any supposed order of artistic capacity. It 
is only an attempt to place the pictures according to ten- 
dency, beginning with Byzantine work and ending with 
Florentine. 

I. Frescoes in the Byzantine Manner 

Scenes from the Old and New Testaments. — Nave of the 

upper church. 
Christ, St. Francis, Madonna, and St. John the Baptist. — 

Roof of the upper church. 

II. Transition from Byzantine to Tuscan Style 

Madonna and Child (attributed to Cimabue). — Southern 
transept, lower church. 

III. Frescoes in the Native Manner 

Acts of the Apostles. — Southern transept, upper church. 
Death and Assumption of the Virgin. — Choir, upper 

church. 
Life of Christ and St. Francis. — Nave, lower church. 
The Four Evangelists.— Roof, upper church. 
Apocalyptic scenes, &c. — Northern transept, upper church. 
The Four Latin Doctors. — Roof, upper church. 

IV. Frescoes in the Sienese Manner 

Half-lengths of Franciscan saints. — Southern transept, 
lower church. 



174 A SSI SI 

Acts of St. Martin.— Chapel of St. Martin, lower church. 
Series of Passion Scenes. — Northern transept, lower 

church. 
Madonna and Child, with St. John the Baptist and St. 

Francis. — Northern transept, lower church. 

V. Frescoes in the Florentine Manner 

Chapel of St. Catherine. — Lower church. 

Chapel of St. Nicholas. — Lower church. 

Life of St. Francis. — Nave, upper church. 

Fresco over the pulpit. — Nave, lower church. 

Chapel of St. Mary Magdalene. — Lower church. 

Life of Christ. — Southern transept, lower church. 

Allegorical frescoes over the High Altar. — Lower church. 

If the frescoes are studied in some such order as the fore- 
going, it will be seen that the abandonment of the old 
manner did not always lead to improvement. The native 
artist in his efforts to stand alone was hampered by the 
visible failings of Byzantine painters without being inspired 
by the imagination that often turned these faults into a 
form of virtue. 

Nor were the artists before the time of Giotto gifted with 
the high intellectual purpose that caused the abstractions of 
the Greek painters to become a magnificent means of render- 
ing their speculations on human life. 

But though the advance of painting was very slow it never 
halted, nor did it stand alone. The arts of sculpture and 
mosaic developed, however, at an earlier period than paint- 
ing, and we must for a moment consider them, if we would 
understand the movement which resulted in the Sienese and 
Florentine schools of the fourteenth century. 

Artistic Influences preceding Giotto 

The most promising art of the thirteenth century was that 
of sculpture. 

North of the Apennines the growth of power may be 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 175 

gauged by a comparison between the rude work on S. 
Michele at Pa via with the sculpture of Antelami at Parma 
and Borgo San Donino. The improvement is based on the 
union of the vigour and imagination of the north with the 
classical instinct of the south. 

In like manner Tuscan sculpture, in the Romanesque 
manner, finds its highest expression in the group of St. 
Martin and the beggar, on the facade of the Duomo at 
Lucca. This work was executed about 1250, and it is a 
remarkable instance of the fusion of northern and classical 
influences. It marks the birth of a new style which is no 
longer Latin nor Teuton, but Italian. 

During the thirteenth century, when Romanesque sculp- 
tors were perfecting this Italian style, Niccolo Pisano 
(i2o6?-i28o?) passing by Byzantine models went straight 
to the antique. He thus originated a new point of view 
which was destined to influence the development of art. 
Giovanni Pisano (d. 1320), the son and pupil of Niccolo, 
owed his training to the classical inclination of his father, 
but his inspiration was the same as that of the sculptors of 
Chartres and Amiens. 

In Rome the name of Vassalectus on the cloisters of St. 
John Lateran (1 220-1 230) recalls a revival of the art of 
the marble mason. The Cosmati family also made many 
designs for pulpits, lamps, altar fronts, and candelabra. 
The work is characterised by a sense of style, and is 
remarkable for classical grace and refinement. 

With one exception no remarkable work in mosaic belongs 
to the thirteenth century. Byzantine tradition held its own 
in the atrium of S. Marco at Venice, and the old manner 
prevails in the mosaics of the tribune of the Baptistery at 
Florence (about 1225). 

No other work of importance appears till 1290. At this 
time Pietro Cavallini, a Roman artist, made some remark- 
able pictures under the semi-dome of Sta. Maria in Trastevere. 
They show vigour and dramatic power, and they are dis- 
tinctly in advance of the frescoes in the upper church at 
Assisi. It is noteworthy that when Giotto went to Rome 



176 ASS IS I 

(1298 ?) he is said to have chosen Cavallini as his assistant. 
Except perhaps at Subiaco, none of the important series of 
frescoes belonging to the thirteenth century show signs of 
new life until we come to the paintings at Assisi. Of these 
the scenes from the Old and New Testaments in the nave 
of the upper church are the most interesting examples. 
They are fine instances of the state of painting before the 
time of Giotto. The art is still stiffened by memories of the 
old style, but they are striking and dignified pictures. 

In all the various arts there may be noted at the end of 
the thirteenth century a blending of classical feeling with 
northern imagination and strength. It is to the organic 
union of these two tendencies that we owe the new style of 
Giotto. The development arising from the fusion of Latin 
and Teuton took two distinct lines in Tuscany. The schools 
of Siena and Florence both sprang from this new force. 
The former represented the emotional and devout, the 
latter the intellectual and scientific energies of the time. 
The Sienese painters moved neither so far nor so fast as 
the Florentines, and we therefore consider them first. 

Sienese Branch of the Tuscan School 

The Sienese School is represented by many examples in 
the lower church. To Simone Martini (1285?-! 344) are 
attributed the half-length figures in the southern transept 
and the scenes from the life of St. Martin in the chapel 
dedicated in his name. The Passion scenes, and the half- 
length of Madonna and Child with SS. John the Baptist 
and Francis, in the northern transept, are usually attributed 
to Pietro Lorenzetti (1348). 

The attachment of the Sienese painters to Byzantine 
tradition was stronger than it was among the Florentines. 
Their painting is characterised by a religious feeling, which 
appeals to the emotions rather than to the thoughts of men. 
Instead of the dramatic vigour and the intensity of life such 
as we find in Giotto, the Sienese masters realise themselves 
in mystical sentiment. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 177 

The half-length figures in the southern transept have a 
fdetached air as if they only belonged to this life by acci- 
dent. They are gracious and benign (except St. Francis), 
with just a faint shadow of melancholy. The singularity of 
the Sienese type, though it is not beautiful, yields itself to 
the realisation of these saintly shadows. They are not 
contemplative souls, for that would imply thought ; they are 
not emotional, for that would imply feeling. The limpid 
colour, the abstract form, and the richness of such decora- 
tion as the artist permitted himself to use, all conduce to the 
unearthly fascination of these elusive figures. They seem 
ready to vanish before our eyes, and yet never cease to 
haunt our memories. 

The frescoes in the Chapel of St. Martin are supposed 
to be by the same hand, and they have something of the 
same grace. If there is a curious air of arrested life, there 
is also a beauty of detail and a refinement of feeling that 
cannot fail to charm. The frescoes make an appeal to us in 
a way that does not reach to any very deep emotion, nor to 
any wide intellectual outlook, but no one can fail to cherish 
the recollection of such cultivated and delicate art. The most 
striking work in the chapel is in the figures on the under 
surface of the entrance arch — Louis IX. of France stands 
before us with the true dignity of a king, and something of 
the spirit of a saint. 

The Passion frescoes in the northern transept differ 
greatly from the other Sienese work in the church. There 
is a want of ordered disposition, there is an extravagance 
in expression, a lack of quality in type, and a failure in 
dramatic capacity which is very remarkable. The colour is 
wanting in purity and refinement ; this may, however, be 
owing to restoration. It is true that the history of the 
Passion makes a greater demand on the artist than any other 
works common in churches, but the painter of the northern 
transept has failed to give dignified and pertinent expres- 
sion to these scenes of triumph, of treachery, of suffering, of 
grief, and of victory. There is vigour and sincerity and a 
magnificence in scale which prevents the pictures from being 

M 



178 ASSISI 

insignificant, but they fall below the level of Sienese and 
Florentine work of the period. 



The Florentine Branch of the 
Tuscan School 

Among the artistic interests which are gathered about the 
Church of S. Francesco it is the influence of Giotto that 
stands out beyond all others. It was the genius of this 
man that transformed Italian painting. What the artists of 
S. Denis, Chartres, and Amiens did for sculpture Giotto did 
for painting. 

He lived in Florence (i 276-1 337) when the power of the 
city was at its height, and at a time when the force of indi- 
vidual men and of vigorous personality was making a small 
Italian town a centre of influence felt throughout the world. 
There were fewer obstacles than usual to the development of 
individual character, for the Communes had beaten the Em- 
pire, and they had subdued the feudal aristocracy. So great 
was the personal distinction of Florentine citizens that on the 
occasion of the presentation of ambassadors to Boniface VII I. 
at the jubilee of 1300, the number of Florentines among them 
caused him to say that, to the four old elements of the world 
there must now be added a fifth, viz., the Florentines. 

Giotto was a true son of this vigorous and highly intellec- 
tual society. The fire and glow of his genius enabled him 
to express the ultimate ideas on which the life of the newly 
awakened world was based. 

The hierarchical life resting on authority was losing its 
hold on cultivated Italian society. The natural life of the 
modern world was becoming the moving force among men. 
The art of Giotto is the expression of this new existence. 

It was the same in other human relations. The spiritual 
appeal of St. Francis was made directly to the individual. 

In literature Dante took the speech of the common people, 
the vulgar tongue, and in it he wrote his great poem. So 
likewise Giotto regarded the common life of ordinary men ; 
he appealed to feelings and ideas which all share. He 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 179 

painted the mysteries of existence so that, in a measure, they 
might be comprehended by every one, and yet he understood 
the deeper spiritual significance of his subject. In the hands 
of many of his followers the outward character of his style 
was copied, without a sense of its inner qualities. 

We often have cause to regret the great Byzantine tradi- 
tion, in which the mystery is never forgotten although its 
directly human relationship may be overlooked. 

The mind of Giotto did not yield to extremes. He could 
understand at once the feeling of the mystic and the active 
life of the ordinary man. He could paint the " Holy 
Poverty " of St. Francis with marvellous insight, and he 
wrote a poem questioning the wisdom of the ideal of life 
which it involved. The Presentation of the Child in the 
Temple is the figure of a great mystery, and at the same time 
he invests it with the sentiment of the relation of mother 
and child. He knows how to pass by the immaterial, and 
yet he avoids becoming too purely abstract. His knowledge 
of perspective was imperfect, his control of drapery was 
incomplete, his observation of natural forms and of land- 
scape was more or less elementary, and yet he can place his 
men and women before us as real beings, full of life and 
purpose. He causes them to move easily, he renders emo- 
tion for the most part naturally, he expresses thought with 
significance. 

The gaiety and purity of his colour, the power and sim- 
plicity of his line, the directness and force of his design, 
place him in relation with all men. The man of the world 
and the mystic will each find what he seeks. Giotto is 
a great dramatist, a brilliant colourist, a powerful 
draughtsman, a master of design, an able thinker, and 
a man full of human sympathies. 

No agreement has yet been reached as to what Giotto 
painted in S. Francesco. The series of the life of St. Francis 
in the upper church, the series of the life of Christ in the 
southern transept of the lower church, and the frescoes in 
the Chapel of St. Mary Magdalene, have all been attributed 
to him, and have all been given to other masters as well. 



180 A SSI SI 

The four frescoes over the great altar in the lower church 
are probably the only works of which his authorship has 
been unchallenged. But though it is impossible to say cer- 
tainly what he himself painted, it is to his influence that we 
owe all or most of the above-mentioned frescoes. 

The Significance of the Pictures in 
S. Francesco 

The purpose of the frescoes in the upper and lower 
churches may be most easily understood if they are taken 
in the following order : — 

I. In the nave, choir, and transepts of the upper church, the 
frescoes deal with the general relation between God and 
man, as set forth in Scripture. 

II. In the southern and northern transepts of the lower 
church there is the history of the Incarnation and Resur- 
rection. 

III. In the chapels of the lower church, the Acts of St. 
Mary Magdalene, St. Stephen, St. Lawrence, St. Catherine, 
St. Nicholas, and St. Martin are described. 

IV. The Franciscan ideal is painted over the high altar of 
the lower church, and the Acts of St. Francis in the nave of 
the upper church. 

I. The system of frescoes throughout the upper church. 

— Apart from the Franciscan pictures the series in the upper 
church gives a complete history of the world in its rela- 
tion to man. The scenes of Creation are followed by the 
history of the Fall and the story of the Patriarchs (on the 
right wall of the nave). Opposite to these frescoes is an 
account of the Incarnation (on the left wall of the nave), 
which finds its completion in the Life and Death of the Virgin 
and her Coronation in Heaven (in the choir). The Gospel 
of the Incarnation was preached by the Apostles (southern 
transept), it was recorded by the Evangelists (vault), and 
taught by the Doctors (vault). The whole is brought to 
a conclusion in the Vision of the End of the World (northern 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 181 

transept), where on the one hand the prayers of the saints 
are offered up before the Throne, and on the other there 
is depicted the Fall of Babylon, typical of the fate of sinners. 

The disposition of scenes from the Old and New Testa- 
ments in relation to each other, such as we find in the 
nave of the upper church, is common in mediaeval thought. 
The law written by the finger of God is a foreshadowing of 
the Gospel. The men of the thirteenth and fourteenth cen- 
turies did not regard the history of the world as divided 
into " ancient " and " modern " ; they had a stronger sense 
of historical continuity than we have, and the change from 
the old to the new was no more than a passing from the 
type to its realisation. St. Augustine, speaking of the Old 
Testament, says : " In every page, while I pursue my search 
as a son of Adam in the sweat of my brow, Christ either 
openly or covertly meets me and refreshes me." Christ was 
killed in Abel ; He was mocked in Noah ; He was sacrificed 
in Isaac ; He was made a servant in Jacob ; He was sold in 
Joseph. 

The Old and the New Testaments, the writings of the 
Prophets, Apostles, and Evangelists, the unveiling of the 
Vision, and the teaching of the Doctors, all had one end — 
they are the record of Faith (Par. xxiv. 91-96), they en- 
courage our Hope (Par. xxv. 88-90), they animate our Love 
(Par. xxvi. 25-27). We realise the purpose of the design of 
the upper church as a whole when Dante declares that his 
belief in God comes through Moses, through the Prophets 
and Psalms, through the Gospel and the writings of the 
Apostles (Par. xxiv. 130-138). 

II. Passing now to the transepts of the lower church, we 
find the history of the life of Christ. These paintings 
may be regarded as an illustration of the Creed. No. 1 
(Plan VII.) shows the Conception by the Holy Ghost. Nos. 
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 (Plan VII.), figure the various scenes con- 
nected with the Birth. Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 (Plan 
VIII.), deal with the Suffering under Pontius Pilate. No. 16 
represents the Crucifixion, No. 19 the Descent into Hell, and 
No. 20 the Resurrection on the third day. 



1 82 A SSI SI 

Dante (Par. vii. 79-120), writing perhaps a few years later 
than the time when these frescoes were painted, explains 
how the Incarnation was the highest manifestation of the 
justice and mercy of God. Man had been disfranchised by 
sin. In two ways it was possible that his lost dignity might 
be recovered. God might grant a free pardon, or man could 
make satisfaction. But, in the first case, justice would not 
have been done, for goodness would not have been made to 
refill that which sin had emptied. In the second, it was im- 
possible for man to make satisfaction, inasmuch as he could 
never fall so low in humility as he had striven to rise in 
pride. The Incarnation answers all the ends of justice, for 
goodness takes the place of evil. It also is the highest 
evidence of mercy, for in no other way could God so fully 
show His love as by giving Himself, so that in His person 
man might make satisfaction. 

It was the loving self-sacrifice, the poverty, the renuncia- 
tion, the suffering, and the submission to the Divine will 
exhibited in this life, that St. Francis tried to make the rule 
of his own life. 

III. The chapels of the lower church have been covered 
with paintings setting forth the acts of St. Mary Magdalene, 
St. Stephen, St. Lawrence, St. Catherine, St. Nicholas, and St. 
Martin, all of them examples of the Franciscan virtues. 

The mediaeval history of St. Mary Magdalene is confused 
with that of Mary the sister of Lazarus, and with various 
legends. She remains, however, the great example of the 
efficacy of contrition, confession, and penance. 

St. Stephen was probably honoured, not only as the first 
martyr, but as one of the first deacons, to whom the care of 
the poor was confided by the early Church. 

St. Lawrence, also a deacon, gave all the treasure that 
had fallen into the hands of the Church to the poor, whom 
he sought out night and day. When the treasure was 
demanded of him, he presented the poor people, saying, 
" These be the eternal treasure ; the hands of these have 
borne the treasure to heaven." 

St. Catherine of Alexandria, though she was born 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 183 

queen of her country and was instructed in all liberal arts, 
despised the things of this life and gave herself wholly to 
the Lord Jesus Christ, and so she was mystically united in 
marriage to Him, even as St. Francis was united to Holy 
Poverty. 

St. Nicholas, according to legend, fasted even as an 
infant, and when he inherited his father's wealth he gave 
it away. 

St. Martin, as a youth, renounced the world, and even 
before he left the service of the Emperor his charity moved 
him to share his cloak with a beggar. He renounced not 
only the world but all its allurements, so that when straw was 
laid for his bed he threw it away and slept on the ground. 

These men and women were moved by a humility that 
knew no shame except in the presence of a humility deeper 
than their own ; by a love of their neighbours without any 
limit, especially for the poor and the sick ; by a love of God 
that made submission to His will the highest joy. 

IV. We still have to consider the distinctively Franciscan 
pictures. 

These consist mainly of the four great frescoes over the 
high altar in the lower church, and of the series represent- 
ing the life of St. Francis in the nave of the upper church. 

Besides these, there are some unimportant pictures in the 
Chapel of St. Anthony of Padua, and the almost invisible 
pictures in the nave of the lower church. 

The Ideal of St. Francis 

The frescoes over the high altar in the lower church, rep- 
resenting Poverty, Chastity, and Obedience, express the 
ideal of St. Francis. The fourth fresco of the glorification 
of the Saint, represents the Divine recognition of this ideal. 

The imitation of the life of Christ, which was the aim of 
St. Francis, does not differ from the nominal aim of all 
Christians before his time and since. The distinction lies in 
the method of reaching it, and in the single-minded devotion 
with which the method was followed. 



1 84 ASS1S1 

St. Francis saw in the sojourn of Christ On earth an ideal 
which he described as Holy Poverty. It is in the exercise 
of this, and not in formal faith and ceremonial observance, 
that the true relations of life become clear. When it is no 
longer possible to covet, when life ceases to be a struggle 
for material prosperity, and when pre-eminence means the 
most absolute humility, it becomes natural that love should 
grow between man and man. 

The ideal of Holy Poverty implies more than a scheme of 
living without ownership of property. It is an ideal in which 
a man gives up not only lands and houses, he must also 
make the sacrifice of all material desires. More than that, 
he must give up the exercise of his intellect and his will, in 
the sense that they ought to be used only in submission to 
the will of another. 

Spiritual freedom is gained when that which we have is 
" prepared by Divine Providence, as is manifest in the bread 
received in alms," when we have divested the mind of all 
material desires by the exercise of holy chastity, and when 
we have submitted the intellect and the will to the guidance 
of another in holy obedience. 

When body and soul alike have been emptied of self, then 
may be reached that state of contemplation which is the 
mediaeval ideal of beatitude. In this condition man can 
perceive something of the truth regarding the Divine attri- 
butes, and from this there proceeds the love of God. He 
can also perceive the Divine order in Creation, so that all 
nature is included in the love of one who has reached the 
power of contemplation through the exercise of Holy Poverty. 

We now have to consider the life of St. Francis as it is 
painted in the nave of the tipper church. This series of 
frescoes is a summing up of the intention of the whole 
monument. We have seen how God deals with men ; we 
have seen the description of the life of Christ, by means of 
which men entered into their true relation with the Divine ; 
we have seen how by lives of faith, of renunciation, and of 
love, men have striven to unite the world in the new ideal. 
The final result of human effort is summed up in the life of 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 185 

St Francis, who was, in the words of his disciples, the 
Mirror of Perfection. 

It must be confessed that we see " the little poor Man ot 
Assisi " dimly in the magnificence of this building. These 
pictures describe the outward and visible life of one of the 
two princes ordained for the guidance of the Church (Par. 
x i- 35~36). We seem to breathe the air of the papal court 
rather than that of the Umbrian valleys. 

Conformity of the Life of St. Francis with 
that of Christ 

His disciples regarded the life of St. Francis as the most 
complete reflection, that we have been permitted to know, of 
the life which Christ led upon earth. The following in- 
stances where the parallel has been drawn may be noted ; 
others will occur to those who keep this phase of the Fran- 
ciscan ideal in mind. 

1. Above the entrance door of the lower church the arches 
are filled with panels. On one is carved the Ascension of 
Christ with a group of disciples below, on the other there is 
the Ascension of St. Francis with a like group of disciples. 

2. The pictures on the nave walls of the lower church 
were probably intended to point to the parallel between the 
two lives. On the right as we face the high altar there 
appear to be scenes from the Crucifixion, the Deposition, 
and the Entombment of Christ. On the left St. Francis 
renounces the world ; is seen in a vision supporting the 
Church ; preaches to the birds ; receives the stigmata ; and 
is buried. 

3. In the northern transept of the lower church the Cruci- 
fixion (No. 16) has opposite to it St. Francis receiving the 
stigmata, the intention being to suggest the parallel between 
the Passion of Christ and the passion of St. Francis on 
Monte della Vernia. 

4. In the central group on the roof of the upper church 
Christ is painted with St. Francis opposite, and at the sides 
are Madonna and St. John the Baptist. 



1 86 A SSI SI 

5. The lower church had originally only three altars: 
the high altar dedicated in the name of St. Francis, whose 
bones rest beneath it ; that to the right, in the southern 
transept, dedicated in the name of Maria Virgine Immaco- 
lata, and that to the left in the name of St. John the 
Evangelist. If the church be considered as the Cross, then 
the relative position of the altars suggests that St. Francis 
takes the place of Christ, while Madonna and St. John the 
Evangelist stand at the foot of the Cross as usual. 

6. Over the high altar in the lower church Christ presides 
over the marriage of St. Francis with the Holy Lady Poverty. 
Poverty, the spouse of Christ, was widowed at His death on 
the Cross, and now she becomes the spouse of St. Francis. 

Frescoes in the Upper Church 

The Nave. The series of frescoes from the Old and New 
Testament are painted on the nave of the upper church. 
They are arranged in upper and lower courses. 

Plan III. (p. 189). 

A. God Creates the World. He appears in the act of 
blessing. Round about Him there is a double circle of light ; 
in the inner circle there are angels, in the outer some faint 
traces suggest symbols of the heavens which the angels 
move and guide. Below this central figure the Dove, with 
a circular nimbus, floats over the water. To the left of the 
Dove is a symbol of the sun, and to the right that of the 
moon. In the water there are fish of many kinds ; on the 
land there are plants and trees, with birds resting in the 
branches. Four-footed beasts are represented by sheep, 
&c. Creation is complete except for man. 

B. God animates the form of Adam. This fresco is much 
damaged. 

C. Creation of Eve. 

D. Temptation and Fall. Little more than the fine figure 
of Adam is left. It is of good proportion, and shows artistic 
capacity. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 187 

E. The Expulsion from Paradise. The figures of Adam 
and Eve are inferior to the single figure of Adam in the 
Temptation. The action of the angel is exaggerated. 

F, G, H, destroyed. 

The lower series from the Old Testament begin again at 
the end nearest the transept. 

K. Noah building the Ark. The hand of God appears in 
the sky warning Noah to build the Ark. Noah is seated 
overlooking his sons, who work with nervous energy. 

L. The Entering into the Ark. This fresco is much 
destroyed. 

M. Sacrifice of Isaac. The child is bound hand and foot 
on an altar of elaborate construction. Abraham's left hand 
rests on the child's head, his right arm is raised, and he 
wields a scimitar with a vigour and goodwill that is decidedly 
repulsive. 

N. Three Angels appear to Abraham. The fresco is 
much damaged, but two of the Angels are still to be seen. 
The staid gravity and dignity of expression and bearing in 
the principal angel is very striking. They have heavily 
braided hair, and immense wings crudely coloured as we see 
them now. The figure of Abraham kneeling before the 
angels is nearly gone. 

O. The Deception of Isaac. The figure of Isaac is almost 
destroyed, and of Rebecca, who superintends the deceit, 
little more than the face is left. Jacob has a nimbus, his 
hands are covered with skin, and his father feels them to 
make sure of the identity of his son. The figure of Jacob is 
a remarkably fine example of the work which was done 
before the time of Giotto. There is in it a high sense of 
quality and style. 

P. Esau brings Food to his Father. The blind patriarch 
is finely rendered. Esau, and a woman who stands looking 
on, are of a poor type. 

Q. Joseph put into a Pit by his Brethren. This fresco is 
nearly destroyed. A few sheep may be seen on the rocks. 

R. Joseph's Brethren kneel before Him.- A servant in 



M ASS IS I 

the background shows the gold cup which has boon found 

in Benjamin's sack. 

The New Testament Series on the left wall of the 
nave : — 

S. The Annunciation, Almost entirely gone. 

T. Destroyed. 

U. The Nativity. The Virgin reclines in a fashion 

usually associated with Byzantine design. The Child lies at 
the mouth of the cave, and behind are the <i\ and the ass. 
Joseph sits with his head resting on one hand. Over the 
root' of the cave the Angels sing the "Gloria in excelsis," 
and one ot" them announces the birth to the shepherds, who 
look up in questioning wonder. Sheep browse in the fore- 
ground. 

A". Destroyed. Probably the Adoration of the Magi was 
represented. 

\Y. Presentation in the Temple. This fresco is nearly 
destroyed. 

X. Flight into Egypt. Destroyed. 

Y. Christ with the Doctors in the Temple. Much 
damaged. 

Z. Baptism of Christ. Much damaged. 

New Testament scenes in the .err.-' course, beginning at 
the transept end of the wall : — 

AA. The Marriage in Cana. An elaborate feast is set 
out. The bride is dressed with great magnificence. She 
wears a crown and many jewels. At her side is the judge 
of the feast, represented by a form of classical type. On the 
left are the nimbed heads of Christ and His Mother. 

BR. Destroyed. 

CC. The Betrayal. A crowded picture of inferior design. 
The types are poor, and the action oi Peter, who cuts off the 
servant's ear, is grotesque. 

DD. Destroyed. 

EE. The Bearing of the Cross. May be just discerned. 

FF. The Crucifixion. This picture is in very poor con- 
dition. 



THE church OF S, FRANCESCO 



89 



I '*(>. The Entombment. Tfce Mother bends ever her 
Son's bead. St Mary Magdalene raieef one of His feet 

St. John takes a hand. Two finely draped women stand in 




the background. Angels weep and wail in the sky. The 

fresco is much damaged. 

HH. The three Maries at the Tomb. Nearly destroyed. 
The series is continued on the end wall of the nave : — 
KK. The Ascension of Christ. Christ is seen rising into 



190 A SSI SI 

the heavens. An angel of fine design, and with brilliant 
wings, exhorts the Apostles. 

LL. Descent of the Holy Spirit. The Dove, amidst rays, 
descends upon Madonna and the Apostles. The picture is 
badly damaged. 

Over the centre of the western door is a medallion with 
Madonna and Child. 

Above the Ascension is a bust of St. Peter, above the 
Descent of the Holy Spirit is a bust of St. Paul. 

The Choir 

The upper church was dedicated in the name of S. Maria 
Assunta in Cielo. It is therefore natural that the life of 
the Virgin should be painted in the choir. 

The history of Mary also forms a continuation of the 
history on the left wall of the nave, in so far as it leads to 
the consummation of the bond of union between mankind 
and Christ in His human relations. 

The frescoes are in great part only shadows, and some of 
the subjects can only be doubtfully determined. 

Plan IV. (p. 191). 

(a.) Uncertain subject. 

(b.) A striking landscape ; subject uncertain. 

(c.) Perhaps the Nativity of the Virgin. 

(d.) Perhaps the Betrothal of Joseph and Mary. 

(e.) The Apostles assembled at the deathbed of the 
Virgin. Mary being seized with a strong desire to be with 
her Son, an angel made known her approaching end. She 
asked that she might be allowed to see her sons and 
brethren the Apostles before she died, and they were 
miraculously brought from the various countries where 
they were preaching. 

(f.) After the Apostles were gathered, Christ came in the 
night with the choirs of Patriarchs, Martyrs, Confessors, and 
Virgins. They all made songs and music around the Virgin, 
and in the morning the soul left the body and was carried 
up in the arms of Christ. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 



191 



(g.) The Assumption of the Virgin. The body having 
been laid in a tomb by the order of Christ, the Apostles 




watched beside it. The fresco shows three ranks of those 
who waited. Nearest to the tomb are saints, each with bare 
head and a circular nimbus. The other ranks are crowned 
and nimbed. On the third day Christ appeared and asked 



192 ASSISI 

how He ought to do honour to His Mother ? It was answered 
that as Christ had conquered death and reigned for ever over 
the world. He should raise His Mother and set her on His 
right hand. We see the empty tomb, and over the ranks of 
saints Christ and the Virgin rise up in an aureole, supported 
by angels. 

(h.) Christ and the Virgin in Glory. 

In the galleries and the arcading above these pictures 
there are to the left two angels with Madonna, and three 
nimbed saints below, and to the right three Apostles (?), 
with ecclesiastics below. 

Southern Transept 

Plan V. (p. i93> 

This part of the church was dedicated in the name of the 
Apostles, who are painted in the galleries, six on each side 
of the transept, (r.) The two lines are headed by SS. Peter 
and Paul. They are tall, striking figures, finely draped, and 
there is no tendency to make the heads unduly large. 

Below are various Acts of the Apostles. 

(s.) Probably the healing" of the lame man by SS. Peter 
and John at the Beautiful gate of the Temple. 

(t.) Probably a record of works of healing such as are 
described in Acts v. 6 : " There came also a multitude out 
of the cities round about unto Jerusalem, bringing sick folk 
and them which were vexed with unclean spirits, and they 
were healed every one." 

(u.) Death of Simon Magus. Simon being in favour 
with the Emperor Nero, and having by enchantment worked 
various seeming miracles, was withstood by SS. Peter and 
Paul. As a final effort to defeat the Apostles he announced 
that he would ascend into heaven. He climbed a high 
tower on the Capitol, and threw himself off. He was sup- 
ported by devils until St. Peter commanded them to let him 
go, and then he fell and died. The Roman Emperor (?), 
attended by soldiers, watches the scene. 

(v.) Crucifixion of St. Peter under the Emperor Nero. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 193 

St. Peter willed to be crucified head downwards, as he said 




Plan V.— Southern Transept of the Upper Church of San 
Francesco, Assisi 

it was not fitting that he should die as Christ had done. It 

N 



194 A SSI SI 

is usually supposed that the pyramid in the picture repre- 
sents that of Cestius in Rome. 

(w.) Destroyed. Little can be seen except a rocky land- 
scape. 

(x.) At the sides of the window there are remains of a 
fresco showing St. Paul, probably before Nero. After the 
Apostle had confessed Christ, the Emperor ordered him to 
be beheaded. 

(y.) A Crucifixion. The figure on the Cross is large and 
heavy, the eyes are closed, there is no inscription over the 
head, and the feet are separated. The lance and sponge 
bearers are in their usual places. Madonna falls fainting 
into the arms of those about her. The disposition of the 
crowd of figures is not well managed. Angels fly round the 
Christ, and one of them catches the blood from the side. 

(z.) In the lunette above the Crucifixion is the remains of 
a picture of the Transfiguration. 

(aa.) The fresco in the lunette opposite has been destroyed. 

Northern Transept, Upper Church 

Plan VI. (p. 196). 

This part of the church was dedicated in the name of St. 
Michael and the Holy Angels. 

(dd.) In the galleries, on the right and left walls, there are 
large and magnificent figures of angels, three on each side. 

(ee.) Above the gallery, to the right, are six half-lengths 
of angels. 

(ff.) St. Michael and two other angels thrust down the 
Great Dragon and two other evil spirits. 

The frescoes on the lower parts of the walls refer to the 
vision of the end of the world as it was unveiled in the Book 
of Revelation, (gg.) This fresco is badly damaged, but it is 
possible to see a representation based upon, but not exactly 
following, the vision described in Rev. v. 

In the upper part of the picture is an almond-shaped 
aureole, enclosing a throne on which lies the Divine Child. 
At the sides of the aureole are circular glories, enclosing the 
four living things— the Angel of St. Matthew and the Eagle 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 195 

of St. John above, the Bull of St. Luke and the Lion of St. 
Mark below, each having a nimbus. 

In two long lines converging towards the centre of the 
picture are the twenty-four Elders, each wearing a crown, 
and in some cases it is possible to make out their harps. 
Where these two lines meet are two vessels, "the two golden 
phials full of odours, which are the prayers of the saints." 
Behind each of the lines of elders are grouped saints and 
angels. The Lamb has been found worthy to open the 
book, and the four-and-twenty elders sing their new song of 
praise. Judgment is set, and the Seals are about to be 
opened. The method of representing the Child is unusual. 

(hh.) This fresco is very much destroyed. It probably 
represents the scene immediately preceding the sealing of 
the servants of God. Four angels stand outside the walls 
of a city. They are the four angels standing on the four 
corners of the earth, holding the four winds, who receive the 
command to hurt nothing until the sealing of the hundred 
and forty-four thousand has been finished. 

(kk.) The Seven Angels preparing to sound the Seven 
Trumpets. In the upper part of the picture Christ sits in 
an almond-shaped aureole. He shows the wounds of the 
Passion. To the right are three angels with trumpets, 
and to the left there are four. In the lowest part of the 
picture there are a number of saints kneeling in adoration, 
the principal figure of the group to the left being a Fran- 
ciscan. In the centre is an altar, at the side an angel floats 
in the air, probably he who had the golden censer, having 
incense which he offers " with the prayers of all the saints 
upon the golden altar which was before the throne" (Rev. 
viii. 3)- 

(mm.) Probably the Fall of Babylon. The city has 
"become the habitation of devils and the hold of every 
foul spirit, and a cage of every unclean and hateful bird " 
(Rev. xviii. 2). 

(nn.) Another scene from the Apocalypse, almost entirely 
destroyed. 

(00.) The wall to the left is covered with a large picture 



196 ASSISI 

of the Crucifixion. In spite of its ruinous state, there is a 




Plan VI.— Northern Transept 
of the Upper Church of San Francesco, Assisi 

great air about this fresco. It gives a sense of strength and 
power, and it must in its original state have been one of the 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 197 

most striking of the whole series of works in the upper 
church. The figure on the Cross has the feet divided ; the 
waist cloth is ample, and seems to flutter in the breeze. 
There is some attempt to realise the anatomy of the body, 
with the unpleasant result often seen in early pictures. The 
eyes appear to be closed. Angels fly through the air as in 
the picture in the southern transept. At the foot of the 
Cross, to the left, there is a woman who throws herself into 
an attitude of wild despair, while another figure gathers his 
robes about him and stretches out his arm with the air of a 
Roman orator. The group of women are well placed, and 
they have a good effect. 

Roof of the Upper Church 

The main design on the roof of the upper church is that 
in the second bay from the transept, where half-length pictures 
of Christ, St. Francis, Madonna, and St. John the 
Baptist occupy the triangular spaces of the groining. The 
spaces in the corners are filled by angels, with outstretched 
wings, standing on globes. They have carefully braided 
hair, and inexpressive faces ; their robes are jewelled. The 
principal figures have a certain stolid and fixed expression. 
The whole design shows the power which old tradition had 
upon the painter. 

The frescoes of the four Evangelists, painted on the 
vault over the crossing, belong to the native school of 
art, which had broken away from the old tradition without 
gaining facility or power in any other direction. Each 
Evangelist has a writing-table, he is attended by the usual 
symbol, and an angel inspires him for his task. The 
church architecture affords some interesting detail. The 
style has points of likeness with that of the Apocalyptic 
paintings in the northern transept. Each Evangelist is 
associated with some special part of the world, St. Matthew 
with Judea, St. Mark with Italy, St. Luke with Achaia, and 
St. John with Asia. 

On the vault at the west end of the nave the four doctors 



i 9 8 ASSISI 

of the Latin Church are painted. St. Gregory is inspired 
by the Dove on his shoulder, and a monk sits opposite 
who writes to his dictation. The other doctors have books 
before them and an attendant monk sits opposite, the latter 
little more than half the size of the former. The doctors 
are enthroned on massive chairs, the attendants sit in a 
loggia, and between is a reading-desk. The accessories 
are elaborate, the furniture being decorated in the style 
of Cosmati mosaic. Everything indeed is done to increase 
the impressiveness and dignity of the figures. These four 
men embody the weight and authority of the Catholic 
Church, they personify the unbending and unyielding spirit 
of dogma. 

Between the last bay of the nave and the western wall 
of the facade of the upper church there is a small 
bay covered with an ordinary arch. On it are painted 
sixteen figures, among which may be recognised those of 
St. Francis, Sta. Chiara, SS. Dominic and Peter Martyr, 
the Bishop, S. Rufino, S. Antonio of Padua, and St. 
Benedict. They are stiff, ascetic forms, representing the 
religious idea in a state of equilibrium. Though they are 
thus very far from suggesting the Mendicant ideal, they 
have a distinct character expressing well the rule of ecclesi- 
astical authority. 

Windows— Upper Church 

Many of the windows in the upper church have fine 
glass in them. Parts of those in the choir and transepts 
are said to date from the thirteenth century, those in the 
nave belong either to the fourteenth or fifteenth ; there are 
also modern restorations. 

The windows in the choir and transepts may be considered 
together. 

(pp.) Northern transept — Creation of the world. 

(rr.) Northern tra?isept — History of Adam and Eve, Cain 
and Abel. 

(k.) To the right in the choir — Life of Christ, from the 
meeting with the Doctors, up to the Betrayal. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 199 

(m.) To the left in the choir — Life of Christ, from the 
Bearing of the Cross, to the Descent of the Holy Spirit. 

(bb.) Southern transept — Manifestations of Christ be- 
tween the Resurrection and Ascension. In the windows 
where the life of Christ is treated the other half of the 
window has scenes from the Old Testament, supposed to 
be typical of the event in the New Testament. The 
Descent of the Holy Spirit has opposite to it Moses de- 
scending from Mount Sinai ; the Resurrection, and Jonah 
cast up by the Whale ; Christ bearing the Cross, and 
Abraham taking Isaac to the Sacrifice ; the Last Supper, 
and the Passover ; the Transfiguration, and Moses with 
his face shining as he came from receiving the Law ; the 
Baptism of Christ, and the Crossing of the Red Sea, are 
other examples of this parallelism. 

In this way the whole history from the Creation of the 
World is worked out — ending with an epitome of the Last 
Judgment, in the design above the light in the window of 
the southern transept. The window on the New Testament 
wall of the nave nearest the choir, has scenes from the story 
of the Magi, the Slaughter of the Innocents, the Presenta- 
tion, and the rods laid on the altar. The design at the 
bottom of the third window from the choir on the same side 
is to be remarked for the relation between Christ and St. 
Francis and Madonna and Child. The fourth window from 
the choir on the Old Testament side of the nave has a series 
of scenes from the history of St. Francis. 

The Life of St. Francis in the Nave of the 
Upper Church 

The life of St. Francis, as painted in the upper church, 
begins with the history of the Saint after his soul had been 
touched by the love of God, but before he had denied the 
world. The following account is taken mainly from Bona- 
ventura's Life of Francis. 

Plan III. (p. 189). 
(a 1 .) A man of simple mind meets Francis and two 



2od A SSI SI 

of his companions. The poor man having ah instinctive 
insight into the holiness of the youth, spreads his cloak on 
the ground. Francis steps on it and looks at him who 
offers the service with a gracious air ; his two companions 
are pleased with the honour done to their friend, while two 
elder men wonder at what they regard as the presumption 
of a young man in accepting such a distinction. These 
emotions are rendered in the simplest and most natural 
way. The details of the figures, such as the hands and 
draperies, show how much had still to be learned. 

The scene is laid in the Piazza Grande. The temple of 
Minerva is curiously translated in terms of Gothic feeling : 
at one side of it is a church with pointed windows and a 
campanile of the usual kind, and at the other a house with 
a series of open balconies. 

(b 2.) Francis gives his cloak to a poor nobleman. 
Through the love of God Francis has learned to love his 
neighbour. He has been touched by the world-weary and 
downcast air of the poor nobleman, and with courtly bene- 
volence he gives his cloak to him. 

High on the hill to the right is a church and monastery, 
and opposite are the towers of a little hill city. The horse 
from which Francis has dismounted is badly drawn, but the 
natural way in which it turns to graze at the wayside marks 
a new feeling. 

(c 3.) The Vision of the Palace. The sleeping Francis 
saw the vision of a great palace covered with banners 
and decorations bearing the cognisance of the Cross. 
Christ appeared to him, and, in answer to the query as 
to the object of the palace, said, it is " for thee and thy 
warriors." 

Francis understood this as a call to knightly duty, and set 
out to serve a great count in Apulia. On the way he had 
another vision, in which God spoke to him, saying, " Francis, 
who can make thee into the best knight — the master or the 
servant?" Francis replied, "The master." "Then," the 
Lord said, "why dost thou leave the master for the ser- 
vant ? " Francis answered, " What wilt thou that I should 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 201 

do, my Lord?" In reply he was bidden to return to his 
home, and was taught the spiritual signification of the vision 
of the palace. 

The lower part of the palace is built with pillar, lintel and 
round arches, the upper part is in Gothic style, representing 
the change which was taking place during the thirteenth 
century. 

(d 4.) Francis, while praying in S. Damiano, hears the 
words come from the Crucified Figure on the cross, " Go, 
Francis, and repair My Church." Francis kneels in a loggia 
opening into the building. Believing that the command was 
concerned with the material fabric of the church, he took 
some of his father's cloth and sold it at Foligno, so that he 
might have the means to repair S. Damiano. 

(e 5.) Francis renounces his family and his earthly 
inheritance. His father, greatly incensed with his son, 
haled him before the bishop. Francis hearing his father 
coming, said, " Father, I am not afraid if you beat me or 
imprison me ; I am content to endure affliction and suffer- 
ing, because I deserve it for my sins." When they appeared 
before the bishop, so that he might renounce his mother's 
inheritance as his father desired, he humbly took off all 
his clothes but his under-garment. He threw them to his 
father, and renounced every temporal inheritance, whether 
of father or mother, saying, " Now I can say, Pater Noster 
qui es in coelis." The bishop seeing so much warmth of 
spirit took him to his arms, and covered him with the folds 
of his mantle. And Francis took a poor garment from one 
of the bishop's labourers, and so he was clothed. St. 
Francis stands covered by the bishop's robe — in the atti- 
tude of prayer, which is answered by the appearance of a 
hand in the sky. 

As the brethren grew in numbers, Francis wrote a form of 
living in simple words, founding it in everything on the 
observance of the Gospel. When the brethren desired the 
confirmation of this writing, and yet were afraid, Francis 
saw in a vision a great tree, and he was raised up so that he 
might touch the top. It bowed its topmost branches, and 



202 A SSI SI 

thus was shown the condescension of the Apostolic See. So 
Francis and the brethren went to Rome and to the Lateran to 
present their petition. But the Pope was busy, and they 
were driven away. That night the Pope saw a vision of a 
palm branch that grew into a mighty tree, and divine wisdom 
showed him that this was the poor man who had been re- 
fused. Then Francis was sought out, and brought before 
the Pope, and some of the Cardinals doubted by reason of 
the strictness of the rule. One of them, however, moved by 
the Holy Spirit, declared it was naught more than the Gospel. 
Then the Pope bade Francis pray that God would show 
them His will, and he so spake that the Pope knew that 
Christ spoke in him. That night the Pope had another 
vision, in which he saw the Church of St. John Lateran 
about to fall, and a little man came and put his back under 
it, whereby the Pope saw that it was this same poor man 
who, by teaching of holy deeds and doctrine, should sustain 
the Church, and therefore he gave his approbation to the 
rule. 

This story is told in the frescoes, Nos. f 6 and g 7. St. 
Francis upholding the Church in f 6, is very remarkable ; the 
figure stands out as the finest example of the new manner in 
the upper church. But it is g 7 which strikes the full note of 
the coming change in the world. 

We see on the one hand the Pope, the Cardinals, the 
Bishops, the hierarchy of the Church ; on the other, a group 
of poor men kneeling humbly, and asking for nothing but to 
be allowed to live by the rule of the Gospel. Such is the 
outward seeming, but the kneeling figure of Francis offering 
his simple words, is the embodiment of the spirit of indi- 
vidualism in opposition to the organised system of the 
Church. Men were no longer content to approach the 
truth through other men, even though they might be Bishops 
or Popes. The spirit within each man must approach the 
Divine Spirit for itself, and so at a later time, when sore 
pressed by ecclesiastical authority, St. Francis refused to 
accept any rule other than " that which had been mercifully 
shown and given " to him " by the Lord." The painter has 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 203 

recognised this true source of spiritual strength, inasmuch as 
while the great churchmen have but the insignia of their 
office, Francis has the nimbus of divine power. 

(h 8.) St. Francis and the car of fire. When the 
brethren were living at Rivo Torto, Francis went to Assisi on 
a certain Saturday, so that he might preach on the next day 
in the Duomo. At night, when some of the brethren were 
asleep and others awake, they saw a car of fire, which passed 
three times through the house. Inspired by God, they knew 
that the chariot was their father Francis, and they perceived 
that the vision was granted to show that he was the chariot 
which they ought to follow as if he had been another 
Elias. 

(j 9.) The throne in heaven reserved for St. Francis. 
St. Francis and Brother Pacifico being in the deserted Church 
of St. Peter at Bovara, near Trevi, St. Francis sent the 
brother to the leper hospital, and he himself spent the night 
in the church, where he was sorely tempted. In the morn- 
ing he was praying when Pacifico returned, and to this latter 
there was granted a vision of the thrones in heaven. 

It was told him that the highest had been the place of 
Lucifer, and that in his stead the humble Francis should sit 
in it. When Brother Pacifico thereafter asked Francis of 
himself, he declared that he was the greatest sinner in the 
world, and so Pacifico saw that his vision was true, and that 
Francis, by reason of his humility, was worthy to sit on the 
throne of Lucifer (" Mirror of Perfection," p. 60). 

(k 10.) The devils driven away from Arezzo. Francis, 
coming to Arezzo, found commotion and combat among the 
citizens, and he saw above the city a multitude of demons 
who were in great joy. Francis, knowing by the spirit that 
they were the cause of the trouble in the city, ordered Brother 
Silvestro that he should command these devils in the name 
of God so that immediately, by virtue of obedience, they 
should depart. And Brother Silvestro, going with great 
fervour and doing obedience to the Blessed Francis, the 
devils at once departed and the city was pacified. Francis, 
finding all in peace and concord, praised God that by virtue 



204 A SSI SI 

of holy humility and obedience, Brother Silvestro had chased 
away so great malignity of Pride. 

(1 ii.) St. Francis before the Sultan. Francis, moved 
by the desire he had to shed his blood for the increase of 
faith, went into Syria and travelled to the country of the 
Sultan of Babylon. When brought before the Sultan and 
questioned as to his business, Francis answered, " I am sent 
by God the Most High, and not by any man of this world, 
so that I can show to thee and thy people the way of salva- 
tion and tell to thee the truth of the gospel of Christ." He 
preached with so much constancy of mind, strength of soul, 
and fervour of spirit, that the Sultan had him in great favour, 
and desired him to stay in the country. Francis said to the 
Sultan, " If thou doubt of leaving the faith of Mahomet for 
that of Christ, command that a fire be lit so that thy priests 
and I may enter it, and according to who is kept safe believe 
thou in that faith." The Sultan, seeing one of his priests in 
flight, declared that they would not enter. Francis then 
offered to go into it by himself ; if he was saved it would be 
proof of the truth of the religion of Christ, and if he were 
burned it would be for his sins. But for fear of the people 
the Sultan would not consent, and so Francis, having re- 
fused all gifts, returned to Christendom. 

The Sultan is magnificent, as one who stands above and 
beyond the rival creeds. The two Moslem priests have 
strong impressive faces ; they are moved neither by the 
spiritual appeal nor the physical terror. 

(m 12.) St. Francis in Communion with God. St. 
Francis is raised from the earth and rests on a cloud. He 
contemplates God face to face as Moses of old. His arms 
are stretched out widely as if to embrace the vision which 
appears in the sky and blesses him. A group of brethren 
below see the vision, but only with a sense of alarmed 
curiosity. 

(n 13.) The Presepio at Greggio. In order to move 
the people to devotion and bring to mind the nativity of 
Christ, Francis ordered (after licence from the Pope) that 
with great solemnity they should bring a manger, with 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 205 

an ox and ass, into the church. Many of the brethren and 
good women were there, and many lights were lit, and there 
was much singing of holy songs. The man of God stood 
near the manger, full of tenderness, weeping tears of de- 
votion and piety, and mass was celebrated. Then Francis 
sang the gospel and preached of the nativity, and it was 
affirmed that at that point a sleeping child was seen in 
his arms. And the hay which was in the manger had much 
virtue in curing the sick. 

(o 14.) The Miraculous Spring of Water. When 
Francis was going to spend the forty days of St. Michael 
on the Monte della Vernia, being weakened by watch- 
ing and by strife with devils, he borrowed a small ass. 
While they were on the way the countryman to whom it 
belonged was thirsty. Francis dismounted and, kneeling 
down, prayed and bade the countryman go to a certain 
spot, where he found water though none had been there 
before, nor has it been seen since. So the countryman 
drank, and they thanked God for the miracle. Vasari 
singles out this scene and says that so natural is the man 
who drinks that one might believe him to be a living person. 
Passing by the great western doors we come to 
(p 15.) St. Francis preaching to the Birds. It is 
told that on the way to Bevagna he saw many birds, and 
he bid his companions wait while he went and preached to 
them. " My sister birds," said he, " you should be much 
bound to God, your Creator, and you should always, in 
every place, praise Him, for He has given you liberty to 
fly, and vestments double and triple, and has preserved 
your seed in the Ark of Noah, and also He keeps you in the 
air, which He has made for you, and besides this He feeds 
you and gives you the fountains and rivers to drink from, 
and valleys for your refuge. And because ye do not know 
how to spin and sew, God clothes you, therefore keep your- 
selves, my sisters, from the sin of ingratitude." When 
Francis made the sign of the Cross, the birds rose up 
and spread themselves to the four quarters of the world, to 
signify that the preaching of the Cross should spread every- 



2o6 A SSI SI 

where. Francis was drawing a picture of his own ideal in 
the free life of the birds, devoid of care and devoted to the 
praise of God, and the artist seems to have been moved by 
the picture of natural beauty that he was set to paint. 

(q 1 6.) The Death of the Lord of Celano. Francis and 
his companions having been received with joyfulness, the 
lord of the house was called to one side and bidden to con- 
fess and give thanks to God for all His mercies ; so giving 
heed, he put his house in order, and made ready to receive 
death. Afterwards they sat down to meat, and while eat- 
ing the lord of Celano passed from this life ; and thus it 
was shown how God holds dear those who receive His 
servants. 

(r 17.) St. Francis preaches before Honorius III. In 
order to please the Cardinal Ugolino, Francis made ready 
a sermon very diligently, but when he began to preach the 
thing went from him, and confessing what had happened, he 
prayed to the Holy Spirit, and at once there was given to 
him understanding, and he spoke with so much power that 
the Pope and Cardinals were moved. It is also said that so 
great was his fervour of spirit that he moved his feet as one 
who dances — not for amusement, but as overcome by divine 

joy- 

The Pope sits in a fine Gothic church, with detail suitable 
to the period. He is not the old man that Honorius really 
was, but a strong vigorous personality in the full exercise of 
powerful capacities. The churchmen listen with an air of 
puzzled doubt ; they are fearful of what may come of this 
new doctrine. 

(s 18.) St. Francis appears at a Chapter held at Aries. 
At the Provincial Chapters, though Francis could not be 
there in body, he was ever with the brethren in spirit, and 
even sometimes in presence. At Aries, when Anthony 
preached of the Cross, it was gixen to Brother Monaldo 
to see Francis in the air with his arms spread out in the 
form of a cross. 

(t 19.) St. Francis receives the Stigmata. Francis had 
the habit of never being idle ; like the angels he was always 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 207 

ascending or descending, ascending in contemplation to 
God or descending in love to his neighbour. He divided 
his energies between the active and contemplative life, and 
so two years before he died he went to keep the fast of St. 
Michael on the Monte della Vernia. 

On the day of the Exaltation of the Cross Francis saw a 
seraph with six shining wings descend from heaven. As he 
looked at it he saw between the wings the likeness of a 
crucified man. Then he was sealed with the sign of the 
wounds. Knowing that there could be no affinity between 
the immortality of the seraph and the infirmity of the Passion, 
he recognised that as he had always borne Christ and His 
Passion in his heart and also in his deeds, so he must be 
transformed into Christ not through martyrdom of the flesh 
but by the ardour of his soul and of his mind. Thus when 
the vision left him he was filled with the fervour of the love 
of Christ, and on his body was the mark of the wounds 
of Christ. 

(u 20.) The Death of St. Francis. Francis, knowing of 
the day of his death, desired to be carried down to Sta. 
Maria degli Angeli. Having taken offhis clothes he lay down 
on the ground, and, with his face turned to heaven, he said, 
" I have done that which I had to do ; may our Lord Jesus 
teach you so that you may be strong in His love and ser- 
vice." He thanked God that as Christ had been naked on 
the Cross so he at his end was poor and naked. When the 
hour of his death had come he bade his brethren that they 
should observe Patience and Poverty and the faith of the 
Holy Roman Church, and, above all things, the Holy 
Gospel. He blessed them, saying, "To God I commend 
you all, that you may obey and fear Him, that you may be 
strong in temptation, and constant in virtue, and do what is 
just to your neighbours." When they had read from the 
Gospel and from the Psalms, that most holy soul left the 
body and was received into the light of Eternal Life. 

The dead man is surrounded by his sorrowing brethren, 
and in the background the clergy are collected ready to 
perform the usual rites. In the sky there is the soul of 



208 ASSISI 

Francis pictured as a youth borne to heaven in an aureole 
of light, and supported by four angels ; other angels to 
right and left attend them. The picture is a good deal 
damaged, but it shows that the painter had overcome 
many of the technical difficulties that beset the artists of 
the early fourteenth century. 

(v 21.) The Vision of the Bishop of Assisi and of 
Brother Agostino. The bishop having gone on a pilgrimage 
to Monte Gargano, Francis appeared to him as he slept 
at Beneventum, and said, " I leave the world and go to 
heaven with great joy." When he returned to Assisi the 
bishop knew that the time of his vision was the same as 
that at which Francis had passed from this life. At the 
same time a certain Brother Agostino, who had been lying 
waiting for death, and without power of speech, suddenly . 
rose up crying, "Wait, father, wait. Behold, I come with 
thee." 

(w 22.) The Verification of the Stigmata. In 
the upper part of the fresco are pictures resting on 
a beam in the church wherein the scene is laid. To the 
left, Madonna and Child ; in the centre, a crucifix, and to 
the right, an angel. Below lies the body of St. Francis, 
the service for the dead is being read, and in the back- 
ground are a number of clergy and lay people, for many 
came to see and be assured of the Miracle of the Stigmata. 
Among these was a noble Knight full of doubt even like 
the Apostle Thomas. And when he had seen and moved 
the nails with his hand, and also the wound in the side, 
in the presence of many seculars and religious, they were 
all certain of that of which they were in doubt. 

(x 23.) Sta. Chiara salutes the dead Francis as the 
procession passes by S. Damiano. 

On the morning after Francis died a great crowd from 
the city and the country came, and with great solemnity 
of canticles and hymns, and the divine office and a multi- 
tude of torches and candles, they carried the body to Assisi. 
When they came to S. Damiano, Chiara and her holy sisters 
were consoled by seeing and kissing the holy body of their 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 209 

father Francis, ornamented with the holy Stigmata, and 
clear and shining. 

(y 24.) Canonisation of St. Francis. Pope Gregory IX., 
having heard of the many miracles done by Francis through- 
out his life and after his death, took counsel whether to 
canonise the body or no. He sent certain Cardinals to 
search out the miracles whether they were true, and they, 
having found that these things were so, the Pope came 
with great solemnity to Assisi, and on the eighth day before 
the Kalends of June 1228 the most holy body of the Saint 
was canonised. This fresco is very much damaged. 

(z 25.) The Doubt of Pope Gregory is resolved. Pope 
Gregory IX. (the Cardinal Ugolino) having canonised St. 
Francis, was still in doubt about the Stigmata. Whence 
one night there appeared to him St. Francis with a severe 
countenance showing anger, and he reproved Gregory for 
the hardness of his heart. Lifting up his arm he showed 
the wound, and when St. Francis had gathered the blood 
from it in a phial he passed out of sight. And by this the 
Pope had no more doubt. 

(aa 26.) A certain woman greatly devoted to St. 
Francis died with some sin unconfessed. Suddenly, when 
her kinsfolk and the priest were watching, she rose up and 
told them that St. Francis had obtained grace for her, that 
the soul might return to the body until she had confessed. 
So it was, that after confession her body fell dead, as before, 
and her soul was freed from great punishment. 

(bb 27.) A certain man, Giovanni, was wounded so 
sorely that the doctor could do nothing for him, and when 
there was no more hope St. Francis appeared and said, 
" Because of thy faith in the Virgin Mary and me, God wills 
that thou should be freed from this evil." St. Francis 
touched the wounds with the hands which bore the mark 
of the Stigmata, and they were healed. 

(cc 28.) A certain Peter having been condemned for 
heresy was given to the keeping of the Bishop of Tivoli. 
Peter having laid down every error and prayed to St. 
Francis, the latter appeared to him in prison. The chains 

O 



2 id ASSISl 

fell from the prisoner's limbs, and the door was opened. 
When the bishop told the Cardinals and the Pope what 
had happened, they praised God and the blessed St. Francis, 
and let the man go. 

Frescoes in the Transepts of the Lower Church 
The Life of Christ in the Southern Transept 
Plan VII. (p. 212). 
No. i. Annunciation. 

No. 2. Salutation, a characteristic piece of early four- 
teenth century Florentine design. There is a fine sense 
of a mountain country in the background. The two women 
meet with a quiet joy, each knows the destiny of the other, 
and the deference of the older woman for the younger is 
rendered in simple and yet subtle fashion. The servants 
carrying the little necessities for the way mark the growing 
taste for expressing thought and emotion in terms of common 
life. 

No. 3. Nativity. Madonna looks tenderly at the 
swaddled Babe in her arms. The usual Byzantine design 
puts the Babe in the manger, and leaves the Mother un- 
concerned. The ox and the ass have an expression of lively 
interest in the Child, and overhead two choirs of six angels 
float in adoration and prayer. Rays of divine power come 
down from heaven and rest on the Child. Over the roof 
of the shed other choirs of angels see the star, and one 
of them flies down and announces the birth to the shepherds. 
In the foreground the Byzantine tradition of the washing 
of the Babe is followed. Joseph sits at the extreme left 
resting his head on his hand. There is a note of naturalism 
throughout. 

No. 4. The Presentation. This is one of the most 
famous of these frescoes. The Temple is an elaborate 
Gothic church decorated with mosaic in the Cosmati 
style. Every figure in the picture, young and old, takes 
its part in expressing the mystery, by which the thoughts 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 211 

out of many hearts were to be revealed, and yet no picture 
in Italian art is more remarkable for the simple rendering 
of maternal affection. 

No. 5. Adoration of the Magi. The Mother and Child 
sit in an open loggia ; they are attended by two nimbed 
figures. The older of the three kings kneels and receives 
the blessing of the Child, the other two kings look on at 
some distance ; all three are nimbed. Their long journey 
is suggested by the heads of two camels which appear at 
one side of the picture. 

No. 6. Flight into Egypt. There is a striking desert 
landscape. Joseph has something of the air and bearing 
of an ancient Roman. An angel in the sky shows the way. 

No. 7. Slaughter of the Innocents. Herod, in his 
impassive attitude, is the strong feature of this picture. 
The action is extravagant and the intensity of suffering is 
poorly rendered. 

No. 8. Christ among the Doctors. This is an impressive 
design. The Child seated in the centre in calm rule draws 
the attention and holds it. The scene is in a Gothic church 
with side chapels. Joseph and Mary enter to the left, and 
hold up their hands in wonder as they see their son teaching 
with authority among the patriarchs of the nation. 

No. 9. Christ goes with his Parents. Jerusalem is 
painted as a fourteenth century city. Mary and Joseph 
pass out into the country. Christ has become the child 
again ; he looks up at Joseph with confidence and just 
touches the sleeve of his robe. 

The life of Christ is continued in the Passion scenes in 
the northern tratisept. The frescoes are usually attributed 
to the Sienese school, and the name of Pietro Lorenzetti 
(died 1348) is connected with them. 

Plan VIII. (p. 215). 

No. 10. The Entry into Jerusalem. The twelve 
Apostles headed by St. Peter follow Christ ; they are met 
by the crowd at the gate of the city. Boys throw olive 
branches in the way. 



212 



ASSIST 



No. 1 1 . The Last Slipper. The meal is eaten at a circular 
table, Judas cannot therefore sit on the outer side ; he is 
distinguished by having no nimbus. 

No. 12. The Washing of the Feet. St. Peter puts 




Plan VII. 

Southern Transept, Lower Church, S. Francesco, Assisi 



his hand to his head, saying, " Lord, not my feet only, but 
also my hands and my head." The Apostles are not so 
dignified as in the scene of the Entry into Jerusalem. 

No. 13. The Betrayal. There is not a noble figure 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 213 

in the whole composition. The sense of degradation could 
hardly be more complete than that conveyed by the flight 
of the Apostles. It is no band of regular soldiers, but 
rather a mob that enters the garden. The face of Judas 
has some quality in it, but that of Christ is not only un- 
seemly, it is ignoble, and the Apostle who stands in the 
lower right-hand corner is of the most vulgar type. 

No. 14. The Flagellation. This scene takes place 
before Pilate. To the right a group of Pharisees look on 
with a satisfied air. The central figure is miserably inade- 
quate. There is no attempt made to render a dignified 
bearing under degradation and suffering, and the expression 
even of physical pain fails. 

No. 15. Christ led to Calvary. Again the central figure 
is mean and cringing. Distortion of face takes the place of 
a dignified expression of emotion. The two thieves walk in 
advance of Christ. 

No. 16. An immense Crucifixion occupies one side of 
the transept. The fresco has been damaged, the central 
foreground having been cut away. The scene is treated 
historically and not symbolically. The figure of Christ on 
the Cross shows an advance in power of rendering the 
human frame as compared with the Crucifixions in the tran- 
septs of the upper church. The countenance is strong and 
expressive. The two thieves are also competently rendered. 
There is an immense crowd of bystanders, mainly Roman 
soldiers ; they add nothing either to the character or beauty 
of the picture. In the foreground, to the right, the group 
of women support the swooning mother, and St. John looks 
on in helpless misery. The scene indeed is treated as one 
of human suffering ; even the angels who fly round the Cross 
express bitterness and tribulation in commonplace demon- 
strations of sorrow, proper to trivial rather than to deep 
and significant emotion. 

The new attitude towards life presents its weaker side to 
us. Christ ceased to be a more or less abstract representa- 
tion of the Divine Majesty. He was realised as the Man of 
Sorrows. At the same time the teaching of St. Bernard and 



214 ASSISI 

St. Francis had quickened the emotions of men ; the love of 
God became an active principle working on the feelings 
rather than on the intelligence of mankind. Hence we find 
a tendency to exaggerate the emotional aspect of the mys- 
teries of man's being at the expense of the wider and deeper 
significance of things. 

No. 17. The Deposition from the Cross. A study of 
human emotion which conveys no effective sense of the 
scene. The purely physical phenomenon has blinded the 
eyes of the onlookers to the underlying fact that death is 
about to be swallowed up in victory. The action of the one 
who draws out the nail from the feet is trivial. 

No. 18. The Entombment. The same seven persons 
who appear in the Deposition take part in the entombment. 

No. 19. The Descent into Hades. This fresco is much 
damaged. 

No. 20. The Resurrection. Once more the central figure 
is the least satisfactory. Christ rises out of the tomb bear- 
ing the Cross of victory, five angels on each side greet Him. 
Around the tomb lie the soldiers on guard ; they are fine 
figures, and their sleep is rendered naturally. 

Pictures in the Transepts not belonging to 
the Series of the Life of Christ 

Plan VII. (p. 212). 

No. 21. In the southern transept. This picture of the 
Crucifixion is symbolical ; it is not intended to represent the 
event as it happened. There are no thieves, and on the 
right side of the Cross St. Francis kneels with two of his 
brethren. St. Mary Magdalene embraces the feet of Christ. 
To the left Mary falls in a swoon. There is a notable group 
of Jews to the right of the picture. A small medallion in 
the frame at the top has a figure of the pelican, in reference 
to Ps. cii. 6. One of the popular stories about this bird was, 
that the young strike their father and he kills them ; then 
the mother pierces her breast, and the blood which flows 
from it brings the young birds to life again. " If this be 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 



215 



true," says Augustine, " see how it agreeth with Him who 
gave us life by His blood." At the bottom of the picture is 
a similar little painting of the lion licking its cubs, in re- 
ference to the story that the cubs were born dead, and were 




Plan VIII. 
Northern Transept, Lower Church, S. Francesco, Assisi 

brought to life after three days by the father licking them. 
In this, was seen a type of the Resurrection after the three 
days in the tomb. 
No. 22. Madonna and Child with Angels and St. 



216 ASSISI 

Francis. This famous picture has traditionally been 
assigned to Cimabue. 

It represents the transition from Byzantine to Florentine 
ideals. The celestial powers reveal to man the Divine Child. 
The grand sweep of the angels' wings, the graceful inclina- 
tion of their forms and the reverent graciousness of their 
expression strike the active note in the picture. Madonna 
is passive ; she has lost the abstract quality of the Mother 
of God, and has not gained the natural quality of the mother 
of a human child. The heavily coiled hair of the angels, 
the veil and robe of the Madonna, and many other details, 
show the effect of the Byzantine tradition. The ordered 
magnificence of the throne, the rich hangings, and the 
splendour of the celestial spirits are in strange contrast to 
St. Francis, the humble follower of Holy Poverty, who stands 
at the right of the picture. The insignificant figure of the 
" little poor man of Assisi," standing apart as it does from 
the general design, does not at first suggest the doctors and 
saints of fifteenth and sixteenth century altar-pieces, and 
yet it may be regarded as an early example of such schemes. 
This picture is one of the most interesting in the whole 
range of Italian art. To the student of style it marks with 
peculiar delicacy the change of manner ; to those who study 
the mind of the thirteenth century it is full of suggestion; 
to all it remains one of the most lovely creations of human 
genius. 

No. 23. A series of eight half-lengths. To the right 
Madonna and Child, with a king on the one side and a 
queen on the other — probably St. Louis and St. Catherine 
of Alexandria. To the extreme left is St. Francis, and 
between these the frescoes probably represent St. John the 
Evangelist, Sta. Chiara, St. Elizabeth of Hungary, and St. 
Louis the Archbishop. St. Louis the King was the patron 
of the Brothers, and St. Elizabeth of Hungary was the 
patroness of the Sisters of the Third Order. The work has 
been attributed to Simone Martini of Siena (1285 P-I344). 
A comparison with the details of the Chapel of St. Martin 
will show that both series may well be the work of one man. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 217 

These half-lengths are charming and peculiarly character- 
istic works of the Sienese school at its best, and as they are 
close to the scenes of the "Nativity" and "Presentation," 
and other Florentine works of the same period and of 
equally fine quality, there is an opportunity for the traveller 
to compare the two great branches of Tuscan art at its most 
interesting period. 

Nos. 24 and 25 probably refer to the story of a miracle 
worked in the city of Suessa. A house fell and killed a boy. 
The people raised the body from among the ruins, and the 
mother, who had faith in St. Francis, began to cry, "St. 
Francis, I pray thee give me back my son alive, and I will 
cover thy altar with new cloth." And thus they remained 
till midnight, when the boy arose and " began to praise God 
and St. Francis." 

No. 24 shows how the people recovered the body from 
the ruins of the fallen house. The figure of a man standing 
with his finger touching his chin is supposed to be a portrait 
of Giotto. 

No. 25. The clergy and people have gathered for the 
funeral. In an open loggia, in the upper part of the picture, 
St. Francis descends from the sky, and, taking the boy by 
the hand, brings him to life. 

No. 26. St. Francis and a Skeleton. This life and its 
accidents were to the mind of St. Francis of little import- 
ance. Death comes to all men alike — to the king, whose 
crowned skeleton mocks his earthly greatness, and to the 
common man. It becomes, therefore, a symbol of the 
equality of all men in the sight of God. We are in presence 
of the two obligations of humanity. St. Francis stands for 
that which ought to be the common lot, the life of Holy 
Poverty, the ideal of the perfection of Christ. Death comes 
as the common lot by which all may pass from the shadows 
of this life to the realities of the next. 

No. 27. Resurrection of a Child. A mother desiring 
to go to church left a child, seven years of age, shut up in 
her house. It fell from a window and died. The mother 
on her return began to weep, so that a crowd was gathered. 



218 A SSI SI 

A certain Brother Rano asking the father of the child 
whether he believed in St. Francis, the father answered, 
Yes ; and if he (St. Francis) would do him the grace to 
revive the child he would ever be his devout servant. 
Then the whole company began to pray, and the child rose 
to life. 

No. 28. Over the door from the south transept into the 
monastery there is a fresco of Christ. To correspond with 
it there is a similar fresco of St. Francis (No. 30) over the 
door from the northern transept. 

Plan VIII. (p. 215). 

No. 29. St. Francis receives the Stigmata. This 
fresco has been attributed to Giotto. Its position opposite, 
the great Crucifixion (No. 16) suggests the parallel which 
has been frequently noted. Monte della Vernia in the 
Casentino having been given to the brethren for a place of 
prayer, Francis, with the brothers Masseo, Angelo, and Leo, 
went from Sta. Maria degli Angeli to spend the feast of St. 
Michael there in the year 1224. On the mountain they 
dwelt under a beech tree, and one day when Francis mar- 
velled how the rocks were fissured, it was shown to him that 
they had been miraculously rent asunder at the time of Christ's 
Passion. He therefore perceived that it was here that the 
Passion was to be renewed, in his soul by love and compas- 
sion, and in his body by the marks of the holy Stigmata. 
After this he was often visited by angels, and enjoyed much 
of the sweetness of holy contemplation ; his body was some- 
times raised from the ground and was surrounded by such 
splendour that his brethren could hardly see him. 

On the feast of the Assumption he went by himself into a 
more solitary place, where Brother Leo was to bring bread 
and water and say matins with him. In this place he was 
sorely vexed by the devil, who fought much with him, but he 
was comforted by angels, and every morning a falcon awoke 
him in time for matins. Once when he was contemplating 
the unmeasurable glory and joy of the blessed in the life 

\ 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 219 

everlasting, an angel appeared to him, and made such 
ravishing music that all bodily understanding ceased. 

At another time Brother Leo followed Francis, and saw 
a light descend on his head. Francis told Leo how God 
had spoken to him and asked for three gifts. Then he found 
three balls of gold in his breast, and offering these to God, 
it was shown to him that they signified holy obedience, the 
most lofty poverty, and the most noble chastity. By the 
opening of the Gospel in the name of the Most Holy Trinity 
three times in succession at the Passion of Christ, it was 
further shown to Francis that as he had followed Christ:; in 
the acts of his life, so he should conform himself in the 
affliction and anguish of the Passion. 

On the morning of the day of the Most Holy Cross 
Francis, turning himself to the East, prayed that he might 
feel in his body the pain of the Passion, and in his heart the 
love which moved Christ to bear so much for sinners. Then 
the fervour of devotion grew in him so much that he was 
transformed into Jesus through love and compassion. He 
saw a seraph come from heaven in swift flight, with six 
shining wings, and he drew so near that Francis saw the 
likeness of a crucified man. And it was shown to him that 
not by martyrdom of the body, but by kindling of the spirit 
must he be transformed into the express likeness of Christ 
crucified. Then Monte della Vernia appeared as though 
burning with flame, and the valleys and mountains round 
about were lighted up so that the shepherds seeing it had 
great fear. 

No. 30. A picture of St. Francis over the door leading 
into the monastery, similar to the picture of Christ (No. 28) 
over the corresponding door in the southern transept. 

No. 30 a. In the corresponding place to the picture of 
St. Francis and the skeleton in the southern transept, there 
is in the northern transept a picture of the Death of Judas. 
The contrast is suggested between the coming of death to 
those who with Francis follow Christ, and to those who like 
Judas crucify Him. 

No. 31. Madonna and Child with St. John the Evan- 



220 ASSISI 

gelist and St. Francis. This picture is usually attributed 
to Pietro Lorenzetti ; it is one of the most beautiful in 
the church. It is purely a realisation of emotion ; there 
is hardly a trace of action either intellectual or physical 
beyond the gesture with which Madonna points the Child 
to St. Francis. The emotion is of the simplest kind ; the 
Child looks up at His mother with a certainty of sympathy, 
the mother regards the Child wistfully, her love is over- 
shadowed by a sense of the evil days to come. St. John 
the Evangelist enjoys a classical serenity just tempered by 
the naturalism of the time ; it is a fine ideal of the disciple 
whom Jesus loved. St. Francis is not characterised as the 
joyful and simple soul that loved to beg for daily bread, 
and dreaded the possession even of learning — there is 
something of the student in the face, which suggests the. 
Dominican rather than the Franciscan habit of mind. It 
is not only the emotion which is of the simplest kind, the 
artistic means chosen to express it are equally unaffected. 
All that can be gained by severity and refinement of draw- 
ing and colour we enjoy in this picture. 

We now come to the four great allegorical fres- 
coes IN THE VAULTS OVER THE HlGH ALTAR. (They 
can be seen best in the afternoon light.) 

Plan IX. (p. 227). 

No. 32 represents the Mystical Marriage of St. 
Francis with the Holy Lady Poverty, she who when 
" Mary stayed below, mounted the Cross with Christ " 
(Wicksteed's translation, Par. xi. 71-72). The scene is laid 
on a bare rock. Christ stands between the pair holding 
the arm of Poverty, while St. Francis puts a ring on her 
finger ; to the left of Poverty stand Hope and Charity. 

On a ledge of the rock below are two undersized figures ; 
the one casts a stone at Poverty, the other points with a 
stick, and a dog barks — for to her, as to death, no one opens 
the gate willingly {Par. xi. 59-60). 

At the lower corners of the picture are groups showing 
how men make right and wrong judgments as to what is 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 221 

the real good. To the spectator's left a youth, moved by- 
charity, gives his robe to a beggar. To the right there is a 
group of three men ; one has nothing to indicate his tendency, 
the others have chosen the gathering of wealth and the 
pleasure of the senses as their aim. On each side of the 
central figures are groups of angels, and in the apex the 
Father Eternal looks down on the scene. 

Mr. Ruskin says that the thorns which are gathered 
round the feet of Lady Poverty are those of the Acacia, 
from which the crown of thorns was made. The roses and 
the lilies which spring up behind her are symbols of love 
and purity. Charity has a garland of flowers, and the 
warmth of her love is figured by the flames which encircle 
her head. She has a circular nimbus, like Christ, the 
angels, and St. Francis, while Poverty and Hope have each 
a hexagonal nimbus. The circle was considered a more 
perfect form than the square or the hexagonal. The square 
nimbus was usually reserved for living persons — the hexa- 
gonal for the virtues, while the circular nimbus was the 
figure of the eternal and everlasting condition. Charity 
has the circular form, as it is the universal passion, neither 
Creator nor creature was ever without it {Purg. xvii. 91), 
and the principle of love " tends to God as the principle of 
happiness" (Gardner, "Ten Heavens," p. 183). 

Two angels rise up towards heaven, the one bears a 
church with a walled garden. This fair building, with its 
garden full of fresh green and beautiful foliage, is a figure 
of the new vigour and force in the Church, springing from 
the freedom of spirit gained by putting away the hindrances 
which choke the true life of the soul. The other angel 
offers up a purse and a garment, probably to signify that 
the things which have been received from the goodness of 
God should be offered in His service. 

The scene in which the young Francis renounced his 
family and his heritage, and gave up even the clothes he 
wore, here receives its mystical interpretation. When the 
brethren asked him what virtue made a man most the friend 
of Christ, he answered : " Know, brothers, that Poverty is the 



222 ASSISI 

special way for Salvation, because she is humility and the 
root of Perfection. . . . And if any man wishes to ascend to 
the height of Perfection he must renounce worldly wisdom 
and knowledge of letters, that is to say, if he is to get gain 
of it. For if he is freed from all such worldly powers and 
possessions he may enter into the power of God, and offer 
himself naked to the arms of Christ. It cannot be said that 
a man has renounced all, if he has reserved something of his 
own prudence or understanding." 

No. 33. Holy Chastity is personified by a young woman 
who is seen in prayer in the tower of a strong castle. The 
building is on a bare rock, and is surrounded by walls and 
towers in the usual fashion. 

Two angels float round about the tower, and offer a palm 
and a crown to Chastity. 

The central scene outside the castle walls is the purifica- 
tion by baptism of a young man ; an angel lays a hand on 
his head, and another pours water over it. To the right 
two angels hold clothing ready for him, probably the habit 
of the order. Purity and Fortitude lean over the castle wall, 
the one with a banner and the other with a shield, so that 
the newly baptized one may be made ready to join the 
soldiery of the heavenly kingdom. The outward purifica- 
tion of the body by water is the symbol of that inward 
purification of the soul which springs from the renunciation 
implied in the Franciscan ideal of Poverty. When pride of 
intellect, self-assertion, ambition, avarice, and love of luxury, 
have been driven out by the love of Holy Poverty then is 
there true purification alike of body and soul. 

Returning to the picture, three figures on the left eagerly 
climb the rocky slope, and stretch upwards towards St. 
Francis ; he takes the hand of one of them, who is a monk. 
An angel holds out a cross, and a nun reaches towards it to 
clasp it in her hand. The monk and nun have been called 
Bernard of Quintevalle and Sta. Chiara ; the layman is sup- 
posed to represent the third order. On the other side of the 
fresco there is a contest with the vices. "Amor" and two 
other personifications of disorder are being forced over the 

v 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 223 

edge of the rock. A cowled and winged figure of Penitence 
lays her lash on the back of "Amor," and an angel thrusts 
at him with a spear. Another angel with cross and shield 
stands in an attitude of defence. Death as a skeleton forces 
an evil spirit down into the abyss. 

Another important element of the picture is the placing of 
guardians on each of the three sides of the Castle. They 
have circular nimbuses and wings. Those that can be 
fully seen in the front have shields, and two of them bear 
scourges — they are the ministers of Penitence and defenders 
of the Castle of Chastity. They are also doubtless ministers 
of God, the swords and shields suggesting that they belong 
to the order of the Principalities. 

A certain brother on one occasion said to Brother Egidio, 
" You who so commend the virtue of chastity, tell me what 
it is?" "Brother," answered Egidio, "I tell thee, that 
properly, chastity is the anxious custodian and continual 
guardian of the corporal and spiritual senses, preserving them 
pure and immaculate for God alone." 

Holy Obedience is the subject of the fresco No. 34. 
The sanction for this quality is found in the Crucified 
Christ, partially visible behind the figure of Obedience. 
Man is subject to various temptations on his way towards 
the true goal of life. The pleasure in riches and other 
material well-being, and the pleasure in the beauty and 
capacity of the body, may both be subdued and yet man is 
not free from danger. 

Unless the will is brought into subjection, there can be no 
right rule of life, for it is by the will (that is, by the union of 
desire and reason) that the use of our capacities is regulated. 
Hence, if they are to be turned to the best purpose, man 
must be stript of his self-will so that temptation may be put 
away from him. 

This submission of the will is represented by Holy 
Obedience, who sits in the centre of the picture, laying her 
hand upon the yoke, which a monk who kneels before her 
holds in his hands. She lays a finger on her mouth to 
forbid speech, for in silence we may best study that which 



224 ASSISI 

is in the heart. To the left sits Prudence with two faces, 
one old, the other young, a figure of the memory of things 
past, and an understanding of things present, from which 
springs a foresight of that which is to come. Prudence is 
the quality which leads a man to a " right estimate of the 
best interests of life." 

In order that this power of estimating may be gained, 
there must be experience and a broad outlook over life 
regarded as a whole. Hence Prudence holds a looking- 
glass, in which the kneeling monk, when he turns his head, 
may see reflected therein the past and present, as it were, 
so that he may guide himself aright in the future. 

The compasses she holds symbolise the measure in all 
things by which a man exercises moderation and attains to 
calmness of soul. 

Besides the looking-glass and the compasses, Prudence 
has an astronomical instrument, explaining the method of 
the ruling of the heavens, used here as a symbol of the 
ruling which Prudence exercises in the life of man. 

Opposite to Prudence, and to the right of Obedience, is 
seated Humility. This is the quality which most easily 
opens the mind to the influence of celestial as opposed to 
terrestrial things. It is the most efficient means of putting 
aside all that which hinders the spiritual life. In the exer- 
cise of it, man makes free progress towards the Divine. 
Humility is a state implying an absence of all presumption, 
and in this simplicity, virtue gives a clear and bright light, 
which is symbolised by the candle she has in her hand. 

He who by Prudence forms a true conception of the right aim 
in life, and who through Humility is saved from the tempta- 
tions which beset the soul, is fitted to submit his will to the 
yoke of subjection. If he is moved to bear the yoke by the 
spirit of Charity then he will rise to heaven by Holy Obedi- 
ence — this is signified by the wings which she bears. 

Below the figure of Prudence two novices are led towards 
Holy Obedience by an angel. On the other side, below 
Humility, is a centaur ; he has the body of a man, the fore- 
feet of a horse, and the hind feet of a beast of prey. This 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 225 

creature of mixed nature is significant of the man in whom 
reason no longer holds sway over the lower nature. An 
angel points to Holy Obedience as a means of reconciliation, 
only to produce disgust and aversion in a being so dis- 
ordered and misruled. 

Obedience, Prudence, and Humility sit in an open loggia ; 
at each side there is a company of kneeling angels, and 
above we see St. Francis attended by two kneeling angels. 
He is drawn up to heaven by cords ; he has in his left hand 
a cross, and the marks of the Stigmata are shown. 

No. 35. The Glory of St. Francis. A certain brother, 
when travelling with St. Francis, had a vision of a throne 
set in heaven, and he heard a voice saying, " This seat was 
Lucifer's who fell through pride, and now it is kept for the 
humble Francis." The "saint sits with a cross in his right 
hand, and in his left, a book. Over his head is a banner 
with a cross, and an angel of the order of Seraphim, who 
" see more of the First Cause than any other angelic nature." 

Round about the throne of St. Francis is a company of 
angels dancing, singing, and making music. Like the 
spirits that Dante sees in the heaven of the sun, they seem 
" as ladies not from the dance released, but pausing, silent, 
listening, till they catch the notes renewed" (Wicksteed's 
translation, Par. x. 79-81). Then again, "the glorious 
wheel" revolves, and renders "voice to voice in harmony 
and sweetness that may not be known except where joy 
maketh itself eternal" (Wicksteed's translation, Par. x. 
145-148). 

Life in its most complete form exists in God, who, while 
He is Himself unmoved, is the source from whence all 
motion proceeds. Motion is therefore an expression of the 
life which man receives from God, and since this life par- 
takes of the nature of God, it finds its most complete 
development in the desire of the individual to return to its 
source. This desire is an expression of love, and as its 
object is to return to God, it is the love of God. 

Hence the revolving of the heavens of the angels round 
the point from which springs life {Par. xxviii. 16), the 



226 A SSI SI 

circling of the souls which Dante sees, and the dancing of 
the angels round the throne of St. Francis is nothing else 
than an expression of the bond which unites all created 
things in their love of the Creator. It is in this circuit of 
motion, of life, and of love, that the soul gains strength to 
perceive the final vision of the " Eternal Light who only in 
Itself abides, only Itself understands, and to Itself turns love 
and smiling" (Wicksteed's translation, Par. xxxiii. 124-126). 

This vision of the Eternal is realised in the painting upon 
the ribs of the vaulting. In the centre, where the ribs 
join, is the figure of the Almighty, and gathered 
round in circle after circle are figures illustrative of the 
Apocalyptic vision in parts of the iv. and vi. chapters of 
Revelation. In the first circle there may still be seen the 
Lamb and the Altar. In the seco?id circle (following from 
rib to rib) are the four living things having the likenesses of 
a lion, a calf, the face of a man, and an eagle. In the third 
circle are the four riders on the white, the red, the black, 
and the pale horses. There are also the lamps which 
signify the Seven Spirits of God. 

The angelic host is indicated by figures symbolising the 
orders of the heavenly hierarchy. Seraphim are nearest the 
centre, Cherubim, with two faces, come next ; then there are 
figures of the order of Thrones, and other angels, with 
symbols difficult to recognise, but probably representing the 
rest of the nine orders. There are also figures representing 
the four and twenty elders. Although it is now difficult to 
make a satisfactory identification of the individual members 
of the whole scheme, there can be little doubt that it is 
intended to represent the vision which was seen by the 
hundred and forty and four thousand servants of God, who 
were sealed in their foreheads. 

This vision of the Glory of God is the consummation 
of the whole scheme of the transepts of the lower 
church. The life of Christ is the example which a man 
ought to set before him. He who lives under the rule of 
Holy Poverty, Holy Obedience, and Holy Chastity is 
following in the footsteps of Christ. To such an one will it 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 



227 



be given, as it was to St. Francis, to be raised up to enjoy 
the enlightenment of the everlasting kingdom and to per- 
ceive " the dispensation of the mystery which from all ages 
hath been hid in God." 

Frescoes in the Nave of the Lower Church 

On the walls of the nave of the lower church there are 
remains of frescoes now hardly distinguishable. On the 




Plan IX. 
Nave of the Lower Church of San Francesco, Assisi 



right wall there are scenes from the Passion of Christ., and 
on the left scenes from the life of St. Francis. 

On the Right Wall. 

Plan IX. 

Nos. 36 and 37 have probably formed parts of a Cruci- 
fixion ; to the left it is possible to distinguish Madonna and 
St. John the Evangelist. 



228 ASSISI 

No. 38. Deposition from the Cross. 

No. 39. Entombment. Christ lies upon the rock, women 
are gathered about the body. 

On the Left Wall. 

No. 40. Francis renounces the world. 

No. 41. The Pope sees the vision of a poor man support- 
ing the Church of the Lateran. 

No. 42. Francis preaches to the birds. 

No. 43. Francis receives the Stigmata. 

No. 44. Death of Francis (close to the pulpit). 

No. 45. Coronation of the Virgin, on the wall at the 
back of the pulpit. A beautiful fresco in the Florentine 
manner. Christ and His Mother are seated on a throne 
together, they turn towards each other, and Madonna, who 
is clothed in white and has a white veil over her head, folds 
her arms in loving adoration and receives the crown from 
Christ. At each side of the throne nimbed saints and 
angels look on with eager joy. 

No. 46. Scene from the life of St. Stanislas, Bishop of 
Cracow. This bishop was canonised in the church by 
Innocent IV. in 1253. King Boleslas having seized a piece 
of land belonging to the Church, the Bishop raised a man 
from the dead to give testimony to its proper ownership. 

No. 47. Bishop Stanislas having censured the disorders 
of the king's actions, he is murdered by order of the king 
while at the altar on the 7th May 1079. 

No. 48. Remains of a picture of the Crucifixion. 

Frescoes in the Chapel of St. Martin 
Plan X. (p. 230). 

No. 49. Martin divides his cloak with a beggar. When 
riding out of Amiens in winter time, Martin met a poor naked 
man to whom no one gave heed. He drew his sword, cut 
his mantle, and gave half of it to the beggar. 

No. 50. Martin lies asleep ; he sees in a vision Jesus 
Christ wearing the mantle he had given to the poor man. 

\ 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 229 

Angels surround Christ, who points to the sleeper ; they 
have large dull faces with narrow eyes, and hair arranged in 
heavy coils, characteristic of the Sienese school. 

No. 51. Martin is girt with the sword and spurs of 
knighthood. The young soldier, his hands clasped in prayer, 
looks up with an ecstatic air regardless of his surroundings. 
The Emperor, who binds on the sword, looks at him with 
alarm, uncertain what such a temper may mean. To the 
right of the picture a commonplace and rather grotesque 
group celebrate the occasion with music. 

No. 52. St. Martin refuses the Emperor's donative. 
The Emperor gives money to the knights who fought against 
the barbarians, and in the background an armed soldier 
receives his share. In the foreground St. Martin refuses to 
accept the gift. The Emperor, seated with ball and sceptre 
and wearing a garland, looks at the saint with an air of 
offence and with the cunning amazement natural to the 
worldly mind when it suddenly finds itself in presence of 
the spiritual life. Martin holds a cross and looks over his 
shoulder at the Emperor; his figure is a marvel of detailed 
realisation, but the shade of disdain which passes across his 
features fails to strike the true note. The soldier who stands 
at the side of the principal figure has something of the same 
fantastic character as the man with the double flute in the 
last fresco. 

No. 53. St. Martin restores a child to life. The fresco 
is much damaged. 

No. 54. St. Martin and the Emperor Valentinian. 
St. Martin desired to have some grant from the Emperor, 
who would not see him. After a week's fasting an angel 
bade the saint go to the palace, and told him that he would 
find entrance. When St. Martin appeared before Valen- 
tinian, the Emperor, in spite of his anger, was forced to con- 
fess the influence of divine power. Rising from his throne, 
he embraced the saint and granted that which was desired. 

No. 55. The Mass of St. Martin. St. Martin, going to 
church, gave his own clothing to a poor man ; and his arch- 
deacon, in contempt, brought him a common garment from 



230 ASSISI 

the market. It was so short that when the saint raised his 
arms in saying Mass it was seen that they were bare, and 




Plan X.— Chapel of St. Martin, Lower Church of 
San Francesco, Assisi 



angels brought sleeves of gold, and upon his head there 
lighted fire from above as upon the heads of the Apostles. 
No. 56. Probably' represents the death_of St. Martin. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 231 

No. 57. Probably refers to the revelation of the death 
of St. Martin made to St. Ambrose. St. Ambrose, whilst 
saying Mass, fell asleep between the lesson of the prophecy 
and the Epistle. After waiting for three hours for leave to 
read the Epistle, his clergy awoke him, and he told them 
that he had been at the burial of St. Martin, and that in dis- 
turbing him they had prevented him making an end of the 
prayers. 

No. 58. Probably the funeral of St. Martin. 

The chapel was built by the Franciscan Cardinal Gentile 
da Montefiore. Over the entrance there is a picture of 
St. Martin raising the kneeling Cardinal. On the under 
surface of the entrance archway there are painted SS. Francis 
and Anthony, SS. Catherine and Mary Magdalene, SS. Louis 
the King and Louis the Archbishop, and SS. Chiara and 
Elizabeth. These are all in the Sienese manner. 

There are six lights in the window. The central subjects 
are Christ and Madonna ; perhaps Martin as a warrior and 
St. Peter ; St. Martin as a bishop and Cardinal Gentile. In 
the lights to the left there are, SS. Gregory and Martin ; 
SS. Francis and Nicholas ; a bishop and St. Stephen. In 
the lights to the right, SS. Jerome and Paul ; a civilian with 
a palm(?) and a bishop ; and SS. Anthony of Padua and 
Lorenzo. 

The frescoes in this chapel show able characterisation. 
The Emperor, his soldiers, the camp followers, the eager 
spirit of the young saint, the severe gravity of the elderly 
bishops, are all well rendered ; but the individual figures are 
not fused into dramatic representations. There is a marvel- 
lous care in detail and a keen sense of decorative effect and 
refinement. 

The following frescoes form a representation ot Sienese 
art in S. Francesco : No. 23 in the southern transept, Nos. 
10 to 20 — the Passion scenes — in the northern transept, No. 
31 also in that transept, and Nos. 49 to 58 in the Chapel 
of St. Martin. Hardly anywhere else except in Siena or 
S. Gimignano can a collection of Sienese art be seen on 
the same grand scale, and not even in these places is there 



232 ASSISI 

the same opportunity of comparing the Sienese and Flor- 
entine schools. 

Chapel of St. Nicholas 

Chapel of St. Nicholas, or the Chapel of the Holy Sac- 
rament, at the end of the southern transept. This chapel 
is the burial-place of Napoleone Orsini (Cardinal, 1 288-1 342?) 
and Giovanni Orsini (Cardinal, 1316— 1355). They both 
died in Avignon. The tomb of Napoleone is still to be 
seen. The frescoes are gay and harmonious in colour, and 
the stories are told in a simple, straightforward way ; but 
there is a want of power, suggesting the hand of some fol- 
lower of Giotto who was not fully inspired by the new 
style. 

Plan XI. (p. 235). 

No. 59. A series of Apostles ; ten only now remain. 

No. 60. St. Nicholas, desiring to give away the riches left 
by his father, and hearing that a nobleman, unable to give 
marriage portions to his daughters, was about to abandon 
them to an evil life, went by night and threw gold into the 
house, so that there was a portion for each. 

No. 61. St. Nicholas, finding that a consul had corruptly 
condemned three youths to death, took with him three 
princes of the Emperor, who happened to have been driven 
into port by the wind, and seizing the sword with which the 
executioner was about to kill the youths, he unbound them 
and took them away in safety. 

No. 62. St. Nicholas having reproved the consul for his 
corrupt judgment forgives him at the entreaty of the three 
princes. This is one of the best of the series. 

No. 63. The three princes having fallen out of favour with 
the Emperor they are imprisoned, and one of them remem- 
bering St. Nicholas, they all prayed to him. In the night 
the saint appeared to the Emperor Constantine, causing him 
so much fear that he examined the prisoners. When they 
had told him of the life of St. Nicholas he bade them to ask 
for the prayers of the saint for himself and his country, and 
set them free. 

\ 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 233 

No. 64. A Jew hearing of the power of St. Nicholas set up 
his image and gave his goods to the keeping of the saint. 
He was robbed of everything except the image. Then 
the Jew beat it and abused it. St. Nicholas appearing to 
the thieves, caused them to restore what they had taken, 
and both the thieves and the Jew were converted to the 
truth. 

No. 65. A man who observed the feast of St. Nicholas 
every year was busy making ready for it when the devil 
appeared as a pilgrim. The man bade his son give alms, 
and the pilgrim, when followed by the child, seized and 
strangled him. The father upbraided St. Nicholas and 
prayed to him, and the child came to life again. 

No. 66. A rich man had a son granted to him through the 
intercession of St. Nicholas. The boy was captured by a 
pagan king, and was caused to serve him. On the feast of 
the saint the boy, remembering the annual celebration in his 
father's house, was sorrowful, and when the king knew the 
cause he defied the saint, and said the boy should continue 
to serve him. Suddenly a strong wind carried up the child, 
and set him down at his father's house. 

No. 66a. The parents of the child receive him with great 

joy- 
No. 67. St. John the Baptist. 

No. 68. Probably St. Mary Magdalene. 

No. 69. A figure of Christ to whom St. Francis and St. 
Nicholas present the two Orsini Cardinals. 

No. 70. On the under surface of the entrance arch there 
are twelve saints — 

SS. Rufinus and Nicholas. 

SS. Francis and Anthony of Padua. 

SS. Sabinus and Victorinus. 

SS. George and Adrianus. 

SS. Chiara and a Queen. 

SS. Agnes and perhaps Elizabeth. 

There are three windows with two lights each. 

To the left — SS. Vincentius and Francis, SS. Agostinus 
and Adrianus (?) SS. Victorinus and Rufinus. In the centre 



234 ASSISI 

— Christ and St. Francis, SS. Gregory (?) and Nicholas. To 
the right — SS. Stephen and Lorenzo, SS. Francis and 
Anthony, SS. Jerome and Gregory. 

The Chapel of St. Mary Magdalene 

The frescoes in this chapel are among the best in the 
lower church ; they are worthy of the most careful study, 
and they should be compared with other examples of the 
best Florentine fourteenth century painting. The frescoes 
are concerned with the mediaeval account of the life of St. 
Mary Magdalene. 

On the roof of the chapel — 

Plan XII. (p. 237). 

No. 71. Christ. 

No. 72. Lazarus. 

No. 7^. Martha. 

No. 74. Mary. 

No. 75. Christ in the house of the Pharisee. Mary 
Magdalene anoints the feet of Christ. Christ and two dis- 
ciples sit at table with the Pharisee and a guest. The con- 
trast between the dignified Christ and the resentful air of 
the Jews is striking. 

No. 76. Raising of Lazarus. This is one of the great 
pictures in early Tuscan art. It is an instance of how the 
best Florentines could deal with the deepest mysteries of 
life in the most impressive manner, and yet bring them 
within the range of average mankind by the subtle percep- 
tion of the human element, which lies hidden in the impene- 
trable enigma of the universe. The painter makes us feel 
that we are in presence of infinite power, and that we share 
in its manifestation. 

No. 77. Noli me tangere. Mary kneels before Christ ; 
she obeys the command, but she reaches forward in loving 
anxiety. 

The mediaeval life of St. Mary Magdalene goes on to 
relate how she, her brother Lazarus, Martha, and other 
Christians were sent to sea in a rudderless boat. They 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 235 

were, however, guided by God, and they landed at Mar- 




Plan XI.— Chapel of St. Nicholas, Lower Church 
of San Francesco, Assisi 



seilles. The prince and princess of the country heard the 



a 3 6 A SSI SI 

preaching of Mary, and offered to believe, if she would 
obtain the grace of a son for them. 

They set out to Palestine to learn of St. Peter. On the 
way the child was born, and the princess died. The child 
was laid beside her on a rocky island, and the prince went 
on to Jerusalem, and was taught by St. Peter for two years. 
On his return they found the child alive, and the princess 
also revived. 

No. 78. In this fresco two angels guide the boat towards 
Marseilles, and there is also an indication of the return of 
the ship with the prince from Palestine. 

No. 79. St. Mary Magdalene, in order to enjoy holy 
contemplation, retired to the desert, and dwelt in a cave for 
thirty years. Angels raised her up daily into the air, and 
she was fed with celestial food. 

No. 80. A priest who had also become a hermit saw 
this, and when he was permitted to speak with her she bade 
him wain St. Maximin that she was coming to receive com- 
munion before her death. 

No. 81. St. Mary Magdalene receives the communion 
from St. Maximin. The saint kneels before the bishop, who 
stands at the altar. She died where she knelt, and her soul 
went up to the Lord borne by four angels. This vision of 
the translation is particularly fine. 

No. 82. Bishop Pontano kisses the hand of St. Mary 
Magdalene. 

No. 83. St. Martha. 

No. 84. Bishop Pontano kneels before S. Rufino. The 
figures on the under surface of the entrance to the chapel 
can hardly be distinguished. At the top of the arch there is 
what seems to be a figure of Christ in the form of the Sun of 
Righteousness. There are also SS. Matthew and Peter, and 
probably St. Paul, St. Paul the Hermit, and St. Anthony the 
Abbot. The women saints have been supposed to be SS. 
Catherine and Agatha, and SS. Agnes, and perhaps Rosa. 

There are four lights in the window. To the left — 

1. Christ, St. Mary Magdalene, and two other doubtful 
figures. 



THE CHURCH OP S. FRANCESCO 



237 



2. Madonna and Child, St. Mary Magdalene in prayer, St. 
Mary Magdalene receives a garment from an angel (?), St. 
Mary Magdalene receives the Sacrament (?). 

3. Noli me tangere, Christ and St. Mary Magdalene ; two 
other doubtful subjects. 




A 



6* 



84 



r> 



83 



Plan XII.— Chai>el of St. Mary Magdalene, Lower 
Church of San Francesco, Assisi 



4. Christ in the house of the Pharisee, the Raising of 
Lazarus, Martha and Mary kneel before Christ, St. Mary 
Magdalene anoints the feet of Christ. 



238 ASSISI 

Chapel of St. Anthony of Padua 

The frescoes in this chapel are attributed to Sermei (1610). 
They are of no interest except as relating miracles connected 
with St. Anthony of Padua. If the spectator stands with 
his back to the window he will have to his right in the 
lunette — 

Plan XIII. (p. 239). 

No. 86. St. Anthony preaching to Pope Gregory IX. 

No. 87. To the left is the Miracle, worked in Rimini in 
order that a certain Bovidilla, who did not believe in the 
Real Presence, might be convinced of its power. Carrying 
the Host in procession the saints met the mule of the unbe- 
liever. The animal knelt down, though its master tempted 
it to neglect the presence of the Host by offering it food. 

No. 88. Below the " Preaching of St. Anthony " and near 
the window there are some remains of pictures, probably re- 
ferring to the story of how the father of St. Anthony, who 
lived in Lisbon, was falsely accused of a murder. The saint 
was in Italy, but in answer to prayer he appeared before the 
judges and caused the body of the dead man to give evidence, 
so that his father was cleared of suspicion. 

The scenes in the window relate to the history of the 
saint. In one of the lights there is a picture of how he 
preached to the fishes. On the under surface of the entrance 
arch are the disciples of St. Francis (No. 89). 

Chapel of St. Louis the King or of St. Stephen 

The frescoes on the walls of this chapel are attributed to 
Dono Doni. They are of no interest. The frescoes on the 
roof have been attributed to L'Ingegno. 

Plan XIV. (p. 241). 

No. 94. The Condemnation of St. Stephen. 
No. 95. St. Stephen led away to be stoned. 
No. 96. The Stoning. 

On the roof, the Prophets and Sibyls are associated in 
prophesying of Christ. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 



239 



No. 90 {over the window) — Daniel ix. 24. The prophecy 
referred to is that concerning the seventy weeks. The 
Sibyl prophesies the birth from a Virgin. 

No. 91 {over the entrance arch). Jeremiah xxxi. 22 — 




A 



89 

A 



fh 



65 



Plan XIII.— Chapel of St. Anthony in the 
Lower Chapel of San Francesco, Assisi 

" The Lord hath created a new thing in the earth." Sibyl 
Tiburtina — " Christ born in Bethlehem." 

No. 92. Micah v. 2 — "But thou, Bethlehem Ephratah, 
though thou be little among the thousands of Judah." Sibyl 
Persica — " The invisible word is seen and touched." 

No. 93. Psalm xvi. 10 — " Neither wilt Thou suffer Thy 



240 ASSISI 

Holy One to see corruption." Cumean Sibyl — " After having 
been in the tomb for three days He will arise." 
The window has four lights. To the left — 
i. The Angel of St. Matthew, St. Louis the Archbishop, 
St. Louis the King. 

2. The Eagle of St. John, Christ in blessing, St. Francis. 

3. The Ox of St. Luke, the Virgin Crowned, Franciscan 
Saint (?). 

4. The Lion of St. Mark, a Queen. 



Between the chapels of St. Anthony and St. Stephen 
there is a picture of the Martyrdom of St. Lawrence, with 
St. John the Baptist, and the Bishops Rufinus and Victor. 

Chapel of St. Catherine or Cappella del 
Crocefisso 

This chapel is the burial-place of Cardinal Egidio Albornoz, 
who died in 1367. The frescoes are in very bad condition. 

Plan XV. (p. 243). 

No. 97. Probably refers to the story of how St. Catherine 
was led to go out from Alexandria into the desert, and was 
there mystically married to Christ. 

No. 98. When the Emperor Maxentius came to Alexan- 
dria Christians were condemned to death. St. Catherine 
appeared before the Emperor and argued with him. He 
sent for wise men to convince Catherine, and she converted 
them to Christianity. 

No. 99. The wise men are condemned, bound, and cast 
into the fire. 

No. 100. St. Catherine cast into prison. The Queen 
and Porphyry visit her, and are converted. 

No. 101. The Emperor found that Catherine had suf- 
fered nothing from starvation while in prison, and in his 
wrath he ordered two wheels to be made so that they should 
break all that came between them. St. Catherine prayed to 
God, and an angel destroyed the wheels. 

v 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 



241 



No. 102. The Queen upbraids the Emperor, and declares 
herself a Christian. 

No. 103. The Queen is tortured and beheaded. 
No. 104. St. Catherine is beheaded. 




Plan XIV.— Chapel of St. Louis the King, 
Lower Church of San Francesco, Assisi 



No. 105. Bishops Blasius, Eugenius, and St. Louis. 

No. 106. St. Francis and two uncertain pictures ; one of 
them is supposed to represent the consecration of Cardinal 
Albornoz. 

The figures in the windows have not been fully identified. 

Q 



242 ASSISI 

The central lights contain Madonna and Child, St. Cathe- 
rine, SS. Agnes and Lucy, and St. Francis and Sta. Chiara. 



The Tomb of St. Francis 

The Tomb of St. Francis is in a subterranean chapel, 
which is reached by stairs descending from the nave of 
the lower church. Francis is said to have foreseen that 
his body should receive great honour after his death, and 
" so will it be for the praise of my God, and by His grace" 
(" Mirror of Perfection," cix.). 



OTHER CHURCHES 

THE CHURCH OF STA. CHIARA 

[This was the church raised in honour of the saint after 
her death. 

The building was begun in 1257 upon a piece of ground 
beside the old parish church of S. Giorgio, which was in- 
corporated in the new structure. The hospital belonging to 
S. Giorgio became the convent to which the " poor ladies " 
were transferred from S. Damiano. 

It was in the parish church that St. Francis had learned 
to read and write, and it was here that his body lay until 
the Church of S. Francesco was built. 

The main incidents in the life of Sta. Chiara of which 
we have any record, are as follows. She was the daughter 
of Favorino Scifi, a noble, whose castle stood on the out- 
skirts of Assisi in the direction of the Carceri. Sta. Chiara 
had listened to the preaching of St. Francis. She was in- 
spired with an enthusiasm for the ideal of life which he 
set before men. She determined to follow his example, 
to leave everything, and to take up the life of holy poverty. 
St. Francis advised her to make the definite renunciation 
on Palm Sunday of the year 12 12. In the Cathedral, on 
the morning of that day, she remained kneeling in prayer 



OTHER CHURCHES 



243 



while the rest of the congregation went up to the altar to 
receive the branches of palms. Thereupon the bishop 
himself came towards her and placed the palm in her hand. 




That night she left her father's house and went down to 
the Porziuncola, where she was received by Francis. She 
changed her dress for a plain grey habit, her hair was shorn 
off, and thus she marked her renunciation of the world and 
her determination to become a servant of the poor. 



244 A SSI SI 

Soon after she was joined by her sister Agnes, by her 
mother Ortolana, and by some members of another noble 
family, the Ubaldini. They received the chapel and con- 
vent of S. Damiano from St. Francis, and here they lived a 
laborious life of devotion, observing strictly the rule of 
poverty. Sta. Chiara died at the age of sixty. For some 
years before her death she had lost the use of her limbs, 
but this did not prevent her from continuing to labour in 
the spinning of flax, which the sisters used for making altar 
cloths. 

After her death in 1253 the community was removed for 
greater safety to S. Giorgio within the walls of Assisi.] 

The church is a Gothic building of red and white stone, 
with large flying buttresses, which add to the picturesque 
and imposing appearance of the structure. The architect 
was Fra Filippo da Campello, and the wheel window de- 
signed by him in the western facade is justly famed for its 
beauty. 

The interior is light and spacious, with a high vaulted 
roof. The bare walls were at one time covered with frescoes, 
now hidden under a coating of whitewash. The only paint- 
ings of importance that remain are in the vaulting of 
the roof above the high altar. The colour of these pictures 
is light and harmonious, and the general effect is very 
beautiful. They celebrate the most famous Christian 
Virgins. 

Beginning with the diagonal towards the apse the saints 
are : the Virgin Mary and Sta. Chiara. To the right of 
these Saints Cecilia and Lucia. Then follows Agnes, the 
sister of Sta. Chiara, and a Franciscan nun whose name is 
indecipherable. The two remaining figures to the left of 
the Virgin are Saints Margaret and Catherine. Opening 
out of the south transept is the Chapel of St. Agnes, which 
contains an interesting portrait of Sta. Chiara, said to be 
the work of Cimabue. The painting is mainly in two colours, 
red and black ; and there are eight scenes from the life of 
the saint at the sides. 

The portrait is that of a tall, middle-aged woman with a 

v 



OTHER CHURCHES 245 

thin, worn face. She wears a roughly made black dress 
and hood. She has a cord round her waist, her feet are 
bare. The picture is not beautiful, but it has the appearance 
of being a faithful record. 

The scenes are as follows, beginning with the lowest panel 
on the left. 

(1.) Sta. Chiara receives a palm branch from the Bishop. 

(2.) She meets St. Francis and the Frati at the Porziun- 
cola. 

(3.) She makes her vows of renunciation, and her hair is 
cut off. 

(4.) Her parents try to force her to return to them. 

On the right, beginning at the top — 

(5.) St. Agnes joins her sister. 

(6.) Sta. Chiara blesses the bread on the occasion when 
Innocent IV. came to visit her. 

(7.) The death of the Saint. 

(8.) The translation of the body from S. Damiano to 
S. Giorgio. On the opposite wall of the chapel is a picture 
of Madonna and Child, attributed by some authorities to 
Cimabue. 

Crossing the nave we enter on the right the side Chapel 
of S. Giorgio, once the parish church, where the bodies of 
both St. Francis and Sta. Chiara were kept until the new 
buildings were ready. On the wall of entrance are paintings 
by an unknown artist of the Sienese school. 

At the top, the Annunciation ; below on the left, St. 
George kills the Dragon. In the centre is the Nativity of 
Christ ; and on the right, the Visit of the Magi. The frescoes 
are of no great interest, and the designs are conventional. 
The flesh tints are unusually pale, and the predominant 
colour of the draperies and background is a dull red. 

Behind the altars are frescoes by another hand, repre- 
senting the Deposition from the Cross, the Entombment, 
and the Resurrection. 

Below these paintings, and a little to the right, are several 
exceedingly lovely figures in bright delicate colours. In the 
centre is the Virgin, enthroned ; on the left, St. John the 



246 A SSI SI 

Baptist and Sta. Chiara ; on the right, St. George and St. 
Francis. These paintings have been attributed to Giotto, 
but they have the characteristics of a Sienese rather than 
of a Florentine master. 

In the same chapel there is a Triptych by an artist of the 
school of Giotto. In the centre is the Crucifixion ; on the 
left are Sta. Chiara and her sister Agnes. On the right, 
S. Rufino and St. Agnes of Rome. 

Here also is shown the Byzantine crucifix from S. 
Damiano, whence Francis received the message. Return- 
ing to the nave, behind the high altar is a large crucifix 
of the school of Margaritone of Arezzo (1236-1313 ?). An 
inscription upon the picture says that it was painted by 
order of Benedicta, who succeeded Sta. Chiara, and was the 
first abbess in the new convent. 

On the walls of the right transept are fragments of frescoes 
which have been uncovered from the whitewash. The 
lower range seems to have been a series of scenes from 
the life of Sta. Chiara, the upper row illustrate the life of 
Christ. Portions of the Flight into Egypt and the Massacre 
of the Innocents are still visible. 

From the centre of the nave a staircase leads down to 
the crypt where the body of the saint is preserved. 
Another stairway leads up to the spot where the stone 
coffin containing the remains was discovered in 1850 under 
the high altar. The large blocks of stone show how much 
care had been taken to provide a secure and secret place 
for the safe keeping of the great treasure. 

The crypt is decorated with paintings in monochrome 
executed in 1862. They represent the incidents in the life 
of the saint which have already been described, and the 
subjects will be easily recognised. 

The body of Sta. Chiara, clothed in a black habit, is shown 
behind a glass window. 

Cappella dei Pellegrini 

[This is the oratory attached to an hospital for the entertain- 
ment of pilgrims who come to visit the tomb of St. Francis. 



OTHER CHURCHES 2\1 

The chapel is dedicated in the names of St. James 
Major, the patron of pilgrims, and of St. Anthony the 
Abbot. 

The frescoes on the outside wall and in the interior are 
by two artists, Matteo da Gualdo (work dated 1468) arid 
Pier Antonio da Foligno, called Mezzastris (working 
as late as 1482). 

The works of Matteo da Gualdo show the influence 
of Boccati da Camerino, while Mezzastris was a scholar of 
Benozzo Gozzoli. 

Neither Matteo nor Mezzastris were competent artists. 
They take their place with Melanzio, who painted at 
Montefalco, and other secondary masters of the Umbrian 
school. Such painting has, however, some interest as 
illustrating how even in small mountain villages a succes- 
sion of painters found occupation and reward.] 

The fresco on the outside wall above the door is much 
damaged. It is attributed by some to Matteo da Gualdo 
and by others to Mezzastris. 

The subject is Christ Enthroned, holding a book with the 
inscription, " I am the way and the truth." 

Round about is a glory of angels ; eight of them are 
playing instruments, four others hold scrolls with inscrip- 
tions. On either side are the titulary saints. Only half 
of the figure of St. James remains ; he carries a pilgrim's 
staff. On the right is St. Anthony the Abbot. Round 
the corner of the building to the left are traces of a huge 
figure of St. Christopher. 

In the Interior. On the wall opposite to the entrance 
above the altar, Matteo da Gualdo painted a Madonna 
and Child enthroned with Saints James and Anthony. 
In the lunette above, which is pierced by a window, is 
the Annunciation, with angels singing praises from the 
earth and from the heavens. At the side of the Virgin 
the artist has placed a little lion, which may have a sym- 
bolical reference to the Lion of Judah. 

The pictures on the side walls are by Mezzastris. On 
the right, on entering, is the story of the miraculous help 



:.S ASSIS1 

given by St. James Major to some pilgrims on their 
way to Compostella. 
The son of a certain German, while journeying to the 

shrine along with his parents, was wrongfully accused of 
theft, lie was condemned to be hanged, but the saint 
coming to the help of the innocent youth, placed his hand 
under the feet o( the young man, who by means o\ this 
invisible support remained uninjured. This is the subject 
of the scene nearest to the door. 

The landscape behind the figures is curiously conventional- 
The colour of the mountains is a vivid pink, while the 
objects in the foreground are grotesquely out o\ proportion. 
No attempt is made to tell the story dramatically. The 
bereaved parents, discovering after several days that their 
son still lived, hastened to the judge who hail condemned 
him. At this point historians differ as to what took place. 
According to some, the parents finding the judge at table 
related the marvellous news that they had found their son 
alive. The judge mockingly replied, " If your son liveth 
so do those fowls in the dish," and the roasted birds imme- 
diately rose up before him alive. According- to others 
the parents urged the innocence of their son before the 
sceptical judge, who replied, " 1 should as soon believe 
that these fowls were alive as in the innocency of the young 
man." At the same moment the fowls rose to prove his 
error. 

The figures seated at table are fairly natural, but the 
standing figures and those in movement are particularly 
wooden. 

Wall to the left of entrance. Two scenes from the life 
of St. Anthony the Abbot are chosen, illustrating the 
charity of the saint. 

Nearest to the altar, we see St. Anthony distributing 
alms to the blind, the sick, and the lame. The figure of 
the old hermit is a dignified presentment, and the beggars 
express their eagerness and gratitude with natural gestures. 
In the background is a rudimentary landscape. 

The next scene describes how food was miraculously 
I 



OTHER CHURCHES 249 

provided for the saint. Six animal-,, intended possibly to 
represent camels, burdened with provisions, kneel down 
before St Anthony, who is seated at the door of a church. 
The monks grouped round him raise their hands in astonish- 
ment or fold them in prayer. 

In the vaulting of the roof are Tour figures, bishops and 
cardinals or ether dignitaries of the Church. It has been 
assumed that they represent the four Latin Doctors of the 
Church, but Canon Elisei, who has written a pamphlet upon 
the chapel, thinks that the figures have a closer connection 
will) the subjects illustrated on the walls. He identifies 
the Pope as Leo Hi., who authenticated the existence of 
the body of St James at Compostella. The bishop to the 
left is St Isidore of Seville, who wrote upon the preacfung 
of the Apostle in Spain. 'I he other bishop is St. Augustine, 
the eulogiser of St Anthony the Abbot, and the Cardinal is 
S. Bonaventura, canonised in 1482, the author of a treatise 
upon the life of the Religious. Above the door of entrance 
IS the figure of Christ surrounded by kneeling angels. On 
the left is St. James ; on the right, St. Anthony and the 
young saint Ansano, who holds his lungs in his hand. S. 
Ansano is the patron of those who suffer from pulmonary 
affections. 



ORVIETO 

NOTE ON THE HISTORY AND PRINCIPA1 

MONUMENTS 

OR\ T IETO stands on the site of the ancient Volsinii, 
one of the richest and most powerful cities of the 
Etruscan confederation. Hostilities between the 
Volsinians and Romans began in 302 B.C., and continued 
over a period of nearly one hundred years. The citizens 
of the Etruscan town had become famous for their wealth, 
and for their luxurious and effeminate habits. They had 
ceased even to trouble themselves, it was said, with the 
burdens of ruling, and allowed the government of the 
commonwealth to be managed by slaves. They shared in 
the general defeat of the Etruscans at the Vadimonian 
Lake in 310 B.C., and were finally subjugated by the 
Romans in 280 B.C. The conquerors were amazed with 
many of the appliances of civilisation which they found, 
and Pliny repeats the statement that not less than 2000 
statues were earned off by the Romans from this city 
alone. The inhabitants took refuge on the shores of the 
Lake of Bolsena, and there a new Volsinii grew up ; while 
a Roman town gradually arose on the ruins of the Etrus- 
can city, and was called Urbsvetus, of which the name 
Orvieto is a corruption. 

The number of tombs in the neighbourhood, and the 
large collection of works of art derived from them, are 
abundant evidence of the size and importance of the 
Etruscan city, which must have existed for five or six hun- 
dred years. Very few and only insignificant traces remain 
of the Roman dominion. 

2*> 



HISTORY AND MONUMENTS 251 

The history of Orvieto in the Middle Ages resembles 
thai, of many other Italian communes. It is a history of 
the struggle between the discordant elements which made 
up the population of that confined space — a walled city. 
The citizens from an early period were divided by op- 
posing interests, due to differences in race, with the con- 
sequent differences in political and religious sympathies. 

1'he Commune, originally governed by Consuls, was Guelph 
in sympathy, and as a rule kept upon friendly terms with 
the papal power. During the twelfth and thirteenth cen- 
turies, the town succeeded in mastering many of the 
neighbouring feudal lords, and compelled them to become 
citizens within her walls. Thus were sown the seeds of an 
endless political and religious division in the town, for 
the incomers were generally Ghibelline and Imperial in their 
politics, and anti-papal, perhaps even heretical, in their 
religious sympathies. In order to repress these tendencies, 
Bishop Riccardo from 1171 to 1201 carried on a vigorous 
crusade in the town against heresy, and many of the inhabit- 
ants were tortured and put to death. This, however, did 
not prove an effective means of procuring permanent peace, 
and the creation of a new officer, a Podesta, for that purpose 
in 1 199 was equally unsuccessful. The factions were known 
as " Ecclesiastici," and " Eretici," rather than as Guelphs 
and Ghibellines, and the balance of power lay with the 
ecclesiastical party. 

Alliances were frequently made with Florence, and the 
various forms of government adopted by that Republic were 
copied by the Orvietans. 

The two chief families were the Monaldeschi, whose 
sympathies were with the Guelphs, and the Filippeschi, ad- 
herents of the Ghibelline party. Continual dissensions 
arose between the two factions. But in spite of this dis- 
union the Commune grew in power and wealth. 

It was a favourite retreat with the Popes, who enriched 
the city with several fine palaces ; and the citizens erected 
large municipal buildings as residences for their Podestas 
and Captains of the People. The massive and imposing 



252 ORVIETO 

dwellings raised by private individuals, which line the de- 
serted streets of the modern city, are further evidence of its 
former prosperity. 

In the Piazza del Duomo alone, we have a group of four 
important buildings, the outcome of the religious enthu- 
siasm of the citizens, and of the relations maintained by 
the town with the papal see. 

The oldest building is probably the Bishop's Palace, 
behind the Cathedral, on the right. It is said to have been 
founded in 977, and was certainly enlarged and restored 
by Adrian IV. in 11 50. Almost all traces, however, of the 
mediaeval building have been removed by the restorations 
made in the sixteenth century. 

Adjoining, and nearer to the piazza, is the Palace of the 
Popes, commonly called the Palazzo Soliano, and now used 
as a museum. 

It was built in 1297 by order of Boniface VIII. for the re- 
ception of the pontifical ambassadors, and was given by the 
Commune to the Opera del Duomo in 1534. 

Close beside it is the Hospital established for the poor in 
1 197 by a priest ; and facing the Duomo stands an imposing 
building, the Palace of the Opera del Duomo, built in 1359. 

It is astonishing to find so many splendid erections in a 
small hill city, but both municipal and private palaces sink 
into insignificance beside the magnitude of the work of the 
Duomo. This cathedral church owes its existence to an 
outburst of popular piety and enthusiasm aroused by the 
miracle of Bolsena. The first stone was laid by Nicholas IV. 
in 1290, and the citizens, imposing a tax upon themselves to 
defray the cost, joined with the dwellers in the suburbs and 
surrounding districts, in long-continued efforts to bring the 
great work to completion. 

Another centre of the ancient municipal life is to be found 
in the now desolate Piazza del Popolo, or Mercato, which 
lies on the other side of the Corso. 

The massive and imposing Palazzo del Capitano, or del 
Popolo, one of the oldest municipal buildings of the Middle 
Ages, is said to have been erected by Adrian IV. in 11 56 
v 



HISTORY AND MONUMENTS 253 

and restored in 1255. The upper storey has six beautiful 
windows, and the entrance is reached by a fine flight of 
stairs leading from the piazza. 

Another large but unfinished municipal building is the 
Palazzo Comunale, in the Piazza Vittorio Emmanuele, erected 
in the beginning of the thirteenth century, now used as the 
Municipio. The Renaissance facade was added in 1524. 
Such are some of the evidences that still remain of the pros- 
perity and vigorous life to be found in Orvieto in the thirteenth 
century. With the coming of the Emperor Henry VII. into 
Italy in 131 1, the hopes of the Ghibelline party were revived, 
and the Filippeschi made an attempt to deliver Orvieto 
into the hands of the Imperial forces. The plot was dis- 
covered, and for three days during the month of August 
1 312 the opposing factions of the citizens fought in 
the streets. No less than four hundred of the party of the 
Filippeschi were killed, and the remnant were driven out 
of the city. Three hundred of the palaces, houses, and 
towers in the Via di Pusterla, belonging to the conquered 
faction, were burned to the ground and have never been 
rebuilt. 

The family of the Monaldeschi, thus left without a rival, 
increased in power, and within the space of twenty years the 
various members of this family had the supreme control of 
the government entirely in their hands. 

Their power, however, received a serious check from the 
factions which arose among the different branches of the 
family. These branches were distinguished from one 
another by the names of the " Stag," the " Viper," and the 
" Dog," and the peace of the town was continually disturbed 
by their disorders. The population declined rapidly under 
the effects of civil war and bad government. It is stated 
that in 1380 there were three thousand families living within 
the walls, and in the space of seventeen years there were 
less than a third of that number, while in 1424 the popula- 
tion counted only two hundred households. It is easy to 
understand how this state of things was brought about when 
we read that Berardo Monaldeschi in 1386, with the help of 



254 ORVIETO 

a company of Breton mercenaries, attacked a certain quarter 
of the town and put to death three thousand people. 

In 1345 there was a brief interregnum in the rule of the 
Monaldeschi, due to the conquest of the city by the papal 
legate, Cardinal Albornoz. This able and warlike pre- 
late succeeded in making peace among' the citizens. He 
re-established the Studio Generale, a school which had 
existed since 10 13, but had been suppressed by the 
Monaldeschi. The Cardinal also rebuilt the Fortress of La 
Rocca, at the north-east entrance of the town. The work, 
however, was interrupted by the death of the legate in 1367, 
and the new construction was rapidly pulled down by the 
opponents of the papal party. The site is now converted 
into a Public Garden, and commands a fine view of the 
valley of the Tiber. 

During the next half century the government of the city 
underwent many transformations. Under the pontificates 
of Boniface IX. (1389-1404) and Gregory XII. (1406-1417), 
Orvieto was ruled by papal legates. In 1414 it was con- 
quered by King Ladislaus of Naples, and fell under the 
rule of the military captain, Sforza. It was restored to the 
Church by the Perugian condottiere, Braccio, but was once 
more mastered by the "Viper" branch of the Monaldeschi 
in 1437. Finally the exhausted city, emptied of inhabitants 
through the continual warfare and succeeding pestilences, 
was reduced in 1460 to the absolute dominion of the 
Pope. Since then Orvieto has ceased to have any history 
of importance, and became part of the kingdom of Italy in 
i860. 

ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 
The Necropolis 

The Etruscan necropolis, on the north-western slopes 
outside of the gates, may be reached on foot from the Porta 
Maggiore, or by carriage from the Porta Cassia on the road 
leading to the railway station. 

By the carriage route we reach first the tombs dis- 



ETRUSCAN ORVIBTO 255 

covered in 1874, which are under the care of a pains- 
taking and intelligent custodian, who was present during 
the first excavations. 

The situation is very beautiful, with cliffs rising steeply 
behind and the wide stretch of the valley of the Paglia in 
front. 

These sepulchres are only a small portion of a vast 
cemetery lying at the foot of the cliffs, and encircling the 
entire hill, a veritable city of tombs, to which the dead 
were brought from the houses of the living in the town 
above. Here dwellings of stone were built for the spirits. 
Shrines were raised in the midst of the dead, and offer- 
ings made to those deities who presided over fertility and 
generation. 

The tombs are of an early date, probably before the 
sixth century K.c. They are not caves hollowed out of the 
rocks, but low massive buildings arranged side by side and 
back to back, like houses in the streets of a town. They 
stand now, overgrown with grass and wild flowers, in the 
midst of vineyards and olive gardens. 

The walls, built of large stones neatly laid and without 
mortar, are about nine feet high. The masonry of the 
roof has been dressed into the form of a vault. The tall 
narrow doorways are without any decoration, and have 
simply the name of the owner of the tomb carved upon the 
flat lintel. There are outer and inner doors, with a small 
vestibule between, which may have been used as a sleeping- 
place by the relations when they wished to discover the will 
of the dead. 

It was part of the belief of those who practised the cult 
of the grave that the dead could exert their influence upon 
any one sleeping near their abode, and could reveal to them 
in dreams future events, or even remedies against sickness. 
There was a constant desire also to propitiate the spirits, 
and in early times among the Greeks, slaves were sacrificed 
at funerals in order that the dead might be provided with 
attendants in the world beyond. 

These blocks of tombs at Orvieto have at each corner a 



256 ORVIETO 

small chamber, in which skeletons, both male and female, 
were discovered. It is supposed that these are the remains 
of servants and dependants. 

A cippus of stone, generally in the shape of a pine cone, 
and supposed to have a phallic significance, was placed 
upon the roof. Inside the tombs the chamber beyond the 
second pair of doors is furnished for the most part with 
stone benches, upon which the bodies of the dead were 
laid. There are never more than three benches, nor less 
than two. A large number of vases of Bucchero, and some 
painted Grecian vases of archaic style, were found when 
the tombs were discovered, as well as some ornaments and 
a few bronze weapons. All the contents of these sepulchres 
relate to a period before the sixth century B.C. 

From this necropolis we pass to the adjoining farm in the 
direction of the Porta Maggiore to the tombs discovered 
in 1896, one of which has been preserved exactly as it 
was found. These sepulchres have been buried probably 
for centuries under the earth and debris which has fallen 
upon them from the higher ground above, and the entrance 
doors now seem to lead into caves cut out in the hillside. 
But these tombs are, like the rest of the necropolis, built of 
slabs of masonry, the roof being formed of converging 
blocks. They were, as a rule, closed by two stone doors, 
the inner being hermetically sealed. 

In one tomb we can still see the bones of the two owners 
stretched upon the stone beds. A gold ring has dropped 
from the finger gone to dust, and hanging on the walls are a 
number of cups and plates of common earthenware and 
bronze. On the floor beside the benches are large vessels 
for oil and wine. Some of the small vases on the walls may 
have contained perfumes which were supposed to ward off 
the final dissolution of the body. Did the relations who 
placed the food and the drink in these vessels believe that 
the shades dwelt in the narrow chamber and suffered 
hunger and thirst, or were they following an ancient burial 
custom which had only a symbolical significance? How- 
ever that may have been, we know that they did hold 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 257 

funeral feasts, and make offerings to the dead at stated 
periods, for outside of the doorways of many of these tombs 
quantities of the remains of previous feasts were discovered, 
such as cups and plates, bones of birds, fishes, and beasts, 
and many egg-shells. As we turn from these vases and 
vessels, so much like our own familiar pottery, and look out 
at the landscape, which can have changed comparatively 
little in two thousand years, we are inclined to feel that our 
likenesses to these far-off Etruscans are perhaps greater 
than our differences. 

Those who desire to return to the town on foot may be 
recommended to take the pleasant path, above the 
necropolis, which leads under the bastions of the cliffs. 
On the way we pass a little chapel with a Crucifixion painted 
upon the natural rock called the " Crocefisso del Tufo," and 
enter the town by the Porta Maggiore. 

The Tombs of Poggio Roccolo or Settecammini 

Those who visit the Etruscan sepulchres have the good 
fortune to find themselves led out from the towns into the 
surrounding fields and vineyards, and sometimes farther still 
into the heart of the woodland. 

The Tombs at Poggio Roccolo will repay the traveller 
not only by the intrinsic interest of their paintings, but by 
the beauty of the scenery through which he must pass. 
The excursion by carriage occupies two to three hours. 
The keys of the tombs must be obtained in Orvieto. 
Leaving the city by the Porta Romana, we descend the hill 
in a south-westerly direction, following the road to Viterbo. 
As we climb the slopes on the opposite side, passing the 
Campo Santo, we have a clear view of the hill city of Orvieto, 
with the mass of the Cathedral and other buildings standing 
out sharply against the sky. 

From this point of view, the rocks and walls surrounding 
the city rise with striking effect above the olives and poplars 
which clothe the lower slopes. 

Beyond the Campo Santo, the road passes the ancient 



258 ORVIETO 

Convent of Santa Trinita, which contains two frescoes by 
Pinturicchio. 

On the right wall is the Madonna and Child, with 
SS. Joseph and Bonaventura on the left, and SS. John and 
Jerome on the right. Angels hold a crown over the head of 
Mary. Round the picture is a circle of cherub heads, and 
in the background there are traces of a landscape, but the 
fresco is now much damaged. 

On the opposite wall is a figure of S. Bernardino of Siena, 
with four other saints. 

S. Bernardino carries a scroll with the words, " Manifestavi 
nominem tuum hominibus? recalling the special mission 
of the saint to preach the Kingdom of Christ. He tried to 
persuade his hearers everywhere to take down their own 
ensigns, public and private, and put up in their place the 
monogram of Jesus. 

On the right are St. Anthony of Padua and St. Peter ; 
on the left St. Louis of Toulouse and St. Paul. An angel 
holds a crown over the head of S. Bernardino, and the 
figures are encircled by cherub heads. There is a pleasant 
landscape, and the whole forms a quiet, solemn picture with 
a touch of Umbrian sentiment. 

The picturesque cloisters are decorated with inferior 
frescoes. 

Shortly afterwards the road ascends more steeply, and 
we pass a great fall of rocks called " Sasso Tagliato," where 
it is said a way was miraculously opened. Higher up the 
hill, are the gates of the villa " Buon Viaggio," where Pius 
IX. once paid a visit during his sojourn at Orvieto. The 
road then crosses a bridge, known as the Ponte Marchese, 
with a monument upon it to a Gonzaga cardinal. Soon 
after this the carriage must be left, and we pass on foot 
along a grassy path through chestnut woods to the entrance 
to the Tombs, which were discovered by Signor Golini 
in 1863. In these tombs we see evidence of the conflicting 
influences which affected the Etruscan painters. 

On the one hand they were powerfully influenced by 
Greek Art, which reached them through the medium of 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 259 

the painted vases imported into Etruria in large numbers. 
They took their conceptions from the Greeks, and copied 
the idealised forms of the Hellenic artists. 

On the other hand they were strongly drawn by their 
own natural tendency towards realism, and by their 
desire to represent things as they saw them, unrestrained 
by any refinements of a cultivated taste. These paintings 
belong to the later period of Etruscan art. Those of the 
second tomb date, it is supposed, from about the year 400 
B.C. The system of colouring is not conventional, as in 
more archaic work ; the faces are individualised by different 
expressions, and there is a good deal of life and movement 
in the figures of the animals. 

These paintings are, however, only mediocre works of 
art, and their chief claim upon our interest is the life-like 
picture which they give us of the Etruscan people, of the 
customs and habits of a great civilisation. We see 
them at their feasts, at their funerals, at their sports, with 
every detail of costume minutely depicted. The first tomb, 
which is the less well preserved of the two, is known as the 
" Tomba delle due Bighe," the tomb of the two chariots. 

On entering the chamber, we see a great stone sarco- 
phagus with its lid removed standing against the wall 
opposite to the entrance. Inside it there are several cups 
and vessels and the remains of a skeleton. 

The roof is cut out of the natural rock in imitation of 
masonry, and a low bench runs round the room. 

The paintings, which are much damaged, represent the 
feasts and sports held at the funeral in honour of the dead. 
There is the same incongruous mixture of gloomy and 
joyful images, of hideous demons and gaily dressed revellers, 
as we find on the cinerary chests. 

Above the entrance door there are two long striped 
serpents, emblems of the underworld, perhaps regarded 
as protectors of the tomb. A similar pair are painted upon 
the opposite wall, and a few traces remain upon the door- 
posts, of what were once the figures of brutal-looking 
•demons, the Charuns, or messengers of death. 



ORVIBTO 

The scenes on the side walls, on the other luiul, show us 
G m the midst of the pleasures of this world, feasting 
and playing, to all appearance absolutely unconscious of 
their surroundings. 

On the wall oi entrance, to the right and loft, ate 
ientS ot' chariots drawn by two horses, probably in- 
tended to represent the races and games held at the 
funeral. In some of the painted tombs we shall see that 
the soul is represented as journeying to the underworld in 
a horse-chariot. Such representations are easily distin- 
guished from the funeral sports by the presence of the genii 
who accompany the spirit on its migration. Here in this 
tomb everything indicates that the people are on this earth 
and of the earth. 

The banquet is painted upon the right wall. Little can 
now be seen except the lower part of the couches, with a 
pair of pigeons seated upon the footstools ; and in the 
upper part of the picture arc some oi the heads of the 
revellers. Two oi these are young men with handsome 
faces of Greek type, wearing white mantles and crowns 
of leaves upon their heads. The names are inscribed upon 
the walls beside the banqueters, who seem to be in eager 
conversation. On the opposite wall are fragments showing 
that the scene of the feast was continued round the chamber, 
and at one side the figures oi musicians can still be traced. 
On the wall opposite to the entrance were formerly repie 
sentations of two warriors, possibly the owners of the 
tomb. 

The second tomb, which is close at hand, has well pre" 
served and important pictures. The chamber is divided 
by a partition, which stands out in the centre of the room, 
and is used by the artist as a line oi division between the 
subjects represented upon either side. 

In the chamber on the left hand we have scenes of pre- 
paration for a banquet oi a purely earthly and material 
nature. In the chamber on the right are pictures of the 
shades partaking of unearthly iood in the presence of the 
rulers of the underworld. 



ETRUSCAN ORVJETO 261 

Beginning with the division on the left of the entrance 
wall, n the first p.'-- - es of an 

with itf head severed, a kid, and a bird hung up 
ai in one of the 

u;;. 1 / realistic detail. On the adjoining wall a n 
busy servants prepare the various dishes for the ba- 
'J be first figure is that of a man cutting up a piece of 
on a table ; next to him is a woman in a short tight tunic, 
superintending the arrangement of various articles of food, 
among which fruits and eg| s< These 

provisions d especially at the funeral feasts, pro- 

bably because of the symbolical meaning attached to them. 
Grapes were sacred to Dionysos, irho presided, nol 

over the new growth of Spring upon the earth, but over the 

quickening of the seeds hidden under the ground in winter. 
For the same reason the poi e, a fruit which lays 

bare . ras consecrated to Persephone. EggS '-'/ere 

Used as an emblem of second life or resurrection. There 
are servants grouped about this table with the f 
carrying baskets, other-; playing upon a kind of double pipe, 
iven the labours of the kitchen. At the end of the 
wail is a servant kneading at the three-legged table ; on the 
adjoining wall we find the cook bending over the furnace, 
while another man, furnished with a kind of mallet, attends 
to the contents of a large vessel. 

On the wall of the partition the servants are seen busily 
carrying the dishes to the banqueting-halL One man, who 
Seems to play the part of major-domo, beckons authorita- 
tively to the servants behind. On the face of the partition 
is a little monkey tied to a tree, said by some to be 
a symbol of the vanity of human life, but by others it is 
regarded as one of the realistic accessories introduced to 
heighten 'he natural appearance of a company gathered 
together for a festival. 

The ssenes on the other side of the partition represent 
the arrival of one newly dead at the banquet of the 
King and Queen of the Underworld. The paintings are 
either by another hand, or the artist has adopted a more 



262 ORVIETO 

refined and less realistic style of painting to suit the change 
in his subject. 

Beginning on the wall of entrance, to the right, we see the 
figure of a young man standing in a chariot drawn by two 
horses. Behind the horses runs a winged female genius, 
or Lasa, holding a scroll in her hand, the record of the 
life of the dead youth. It was believed that the attendant 
genii, or guardian spirits, accompanied human beings through 
their lives and at death, underwent a transformation into 
snakes like the souls themselves. This may account for the 
pair of knotted serpents which the Lasa has twisted round 
her waist. 

The scene of the feast to which the new arrival is hasten- 
ing began on the adjoining wall, but nothing now remains 
except a fragment of a couch and some heads with the 
names inscribed beside them. The paintings on the wall 
at the end of the chamber are, however, better preserved, 
and the figures of two men lying upon couches with drinking 
cups in their hands can be clearly seen. 

A cloudy background is painted behind the heads of the 
men as though to indicate some celestial region, and at the 
same time, with a curious mixture of ideas, a number of 
candelabra with lighted candles are placed beside the 
couches, and two domestic pets, one like a cat called 
" Krajikru? and an ape or dog called " Kurftu? disport 
themselves upon the footstools. Two musicians with instru- 
ments stand beside the couches. 

The place of honour on the partition wall is given to the 
majestic group of the King and Queen of Hades, sitting 
upon thrones side by side. Little of the figures remain ex- 
cept the heads, with the words inscribed " Eita" the Greek 
Aides, and " Phersip?iai? the Greek Persephone or Perse- 
phoneia. The head of the god is covered with a wolf's skin, 
and the goddess, who wears earrings and a necklace, has a 
sceptre crowned by the figure of a little blue bird. There 
is nothing awful about the appearance of these dread deities. 
Hades, " the Invisible one," and Persephone, " the desolat- 
ing Slayer," are here represented as a comely and gracious 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 263 

pair, sharing with mortals in their taste for jewels and other 
ornaments. Such figures are no doubt a reflection of the 
growing desire, with the progress of the race, to present. a 
less gloomy view of the soul's existence after death, and to 
depict the possibility of a blissful life, for some at least, in 
the world below. 

The Museums 

The principal Etruscan collections are those of the Museo 
Civico, and of the Conte Faina in the Palazzo Faina. A 
small collection in the town, belonging to Signor Mancini, 
is also courteously shown to visitors. 

The Museo Civico. Part of the municipal collection is 
still preserved in the Opera del Duomo, in the south-western 
corner of the Piazza del Duomo. A new catalogue is in 
process of preparation. 

On the Ground Floor- 
No. 600. A column of pyramidal shape with the words in 
large Etruscan letters " Tinia, Tinscvil," that is, " Sacred to 
Tinia," the Etruscan deity corresponding with the Greek 
Zeus. 

From this inscription it is supposed that this stone was 
either an altar or, perhaps more probably, a stone case for 
holding the pole or log of wood, the primitive symbol of 
Zeus among the ancient peoples of Italy. 

Stone cippi, some of which have inscriptions. These 
stone monuments were used to mark the place of sepulchres 
and to signify that the earth was sacred. They were placed 
on the roofs or above the doorways of the tombs, corre- 
sponding in number to the dead buried within. Some of 
the cippi are to be seen in their original position at the 
necropolis on the northern slopes of the hill. 

No. 845. A stela, or sepulchral monument with a bas-relief, 
probably representing the dead person. This style of monu- 
ment is rare in the district, and is archaic in character. 

The statue of a goddess, known as the Venus of Can- 
nicella. This statue was found in 1884, in the necropolis 
under the cliffs, to the south of the city. " Turan," the 



264 ORVIETO 

Etruscan Venus, venerated as a manifestation of the fertile 
and reproductive forces of nature, was probably worshipped 
at a shrine raised in the midst of the cemetery. Some of 
the votive offerings were discovered in the debris, and are 
now laid round about the statue. The figure of the goddess 
is an interesting example of the influences which affected 
the Etruscans in the representation of religious images. At 
first purely Oriental forms were adopted. The deities were 
often figured with the heads of animals and with wings. 
But as the influence of Greek civilisation spread the Asiatic 
types were replaced by more gracious and natural concep- 
tions of the human form, imitated from Hellenic models. 

The head of this Venus is like the archaic primitive god- 
dess of the East, with heavy features and plaits of hair 
arranged in rigid parallel lines. On the other hand, the 
body is in a different and much freer style, and resembles 
the work of the later Greek sculptors. 

Fragments of statues in terra-cotta, the decorations of 
an Etruscan temple, discovered in the Via Cassia. Nos. 
721, 722, 723, 724. 

The Etruscan temples seem to have been informed by 
the same general principles as the Doric style of buildings 
in Greece. 

The tympanum of the Etruscan temple, however, unlike 
the Grecian model, did not rest directly upon the pillars, but 
projected in front of them like a balcony, and was therefore 
incapable of supporting the weight of a group of statues in 
solid stone. 

The Etruscan architects showed their usual ingenuity and 
their readiness to sacrifice artistic requirements to practical 
utility by the substitution of terra-cotta for stone, and of 
bas-relief for sculpture in the round. 

The terra-cotta figures in high relief were attached by 
nails to the building, and when covered with paint presented 
the appearance of a group of statuary. The fragments of 
terra-cotta here, include masks and parts of statues of satyrs, 
fauns, and nymphs, indicating perhaps that the Temple was 
dedicated to the Etruscan Bacchus or " Phupluns." 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 265 

In the same room there is also an Etruscan Tomb, which 
has been brought from the necropolis lying to the north of 
the city. It is a good example of the type of Tombs built 
of stones without cement. The chamber is furnished with 
two stone benches upon which the dead were laid. The 
roof is formed of blocks of stone so placed that each one 
projects beyond the other until they meet at the top. The 
projecting ends are sawn off, and the effect is that of a 
roughly made vault. 

In two of the other rooms of the building are careful 
reproductions of the paintings in the tombs of Sette- 
cammini at Poggio Roccolo near to Orvieto, which may be 
studied with advantage both by those who intend to visit the 
tombs and those who cannot do so, as they are interesting 
examples of Etruscan painting. They present us with a 
realistic and vivid picture of some of the customs, habits, 
and costumes of this great race of people. 



[Leaving the Opera del Duomo we cross the piazza to the 
Palazzo Soliano, or Palazzo del Papa, where is the collec- 
tion of Etruscan pottery and bronzes. 

The pottery may be divided roughly into three classes. 

1. The Bucchero, or black ware, the national pottery of 
Etruria. 

2. Painted vases of archaic style, with black designs upon 
red. 

3. Painted vases of more perfect style, with red designs 
upon black. 

A large number of the designs upon the pottery relate to 
the myths in connection with the worship of Dionysos. 

We know that in Roman times Bacchus was most re- 
nowned in places, such as Orvieto, where the light volcanic 
soil was especially adapted to the cultivation of the vine. 
It is possible, therefore, that there may have been a special 
cult of the deity in this district in Etruscan times. 

Upon the Bucchero ware, and upon the pottery of an 



266 ORVIETO 

early date generally, the symbols relating to Dionysos are 
those of a primitive people, worshippers of the forces of 
nature. He is conceived of, as an earth-god, and an em- 
bodiment of reproductive force, to be expressed not in human 
form, but by the trunk of a vine, or by some other rude 
emblem of fertility. 

The symbols of this god which appear upon the Bucchero 
ware in this museum are all associated with the life of the 
field and the forest. Such are the panthers and lions, beasts 
of the forest ; the goats and rams, emblems of the fertile fields ; 
the scrolls of vine leaves, and clusters of fruit, and the ever 
green ivy.] 

On entering the hall we find a collection of black Bucchero 
ware, the national pottery of the Etruscans in Cases I., III., 
V., VII., and VIII. The black colour was obtained by 
baking the clay in a covered kiln, and subjecting it to a thick 
black smoke. We may trace the development of this 
pottery from various examples in these cases. The first 
attempts are rude in form and of a dull greyish colour, and 
these nondescript vessels gradually give place to better 
formed specimens which are both smoother and more 
lustrous. 

The earliest examples are to be found on the upper 
shelf of Case VII., nearest to the door. The Bucchero 
ware dates from the end of the seventh century B.C., and 
the Etruscan artists seem to have borrowed the designs of 
many Eastern nations. Drinking vessels, cups, and vases of 
various shapes are ornamented with stamped designs of 
fantastic animals from Oriental art. Veiled women's heads, 
with the hair arranged in rigid lines, are noticeable among 
the animal forms. These heads are believed to signify the 
dwellers in the underworld, and they appear in connection 
with several Dionysiac emblems such as bunches of grapes, 
panthers, and goats. On the second shelf of Case VII. 
there is a fine piece of Bucchero ware with the design so 
familiar in Oriental art of two animals, one on each side of 
a sacred tree. 

Case III. has some large bronze sacrificial vessels used 

v 



ETRUSCAN ORVIBTO 267 

for pouring the libation over the head of the victim. In this 
same case are vessels of Bucchero in fantastic shapes. 
One has a bearded head of Bacchus in front, and ends in a 
ram's head, the ram being one of the symbols of the god. 
A similar form was called " Rhyton" by the Greeks, and was 
the wine jug used by the satyrs and other followers of 
Dionysos. 

Vases in the shape of a bent leg also occur in reference 
to the second birth of the wine god. Semele, whose likeness 
was the surface of the earth, died smitten with the lightning 
heat when her son Dionysos, the vine, was born. His father 
Zeus, figured by the sky from whence clouds and thunder- 
bolts come, hid the child in his thigh until he should be fit 
for this second birth. 

In Cases V., VI., X., XL, and XII. we find examples of 
painted vases both of archaic and of later style. These 
Greek vases have been found by the thousand in tombs of 
all periods later than the middle of the sixth century B.C. 
The greatest number were importations from Greece, 
and only a comparatively small number were made in 
Etruria in imitation of the Greek models. Such imitations 
are easily distinguished by characteristic details in costume, 
and by the realistic scenes of Inferno, with the grimacing 
demons and furies peculiar to Etruscan mythology. 

Painted vases of the archaic style with black designs 
upon red. There are a number of drinking cups, principally 
of two forms, the Kyltx, a. flat shallow cup with two hori- 
zontal handles, and the Kantkaros, a slightly deeper cup 
with handles rising above the bowl. Both kinds of vessels 
were used in the Dionysiac festivals. The Kdntharos was 
sacred to Dionysos, and the Kylix'is the cup most frequently 
used by his followers. Several of these cups have enormous 
eyes painted upon them, in conjunction with bunches of 
grapes and figures of satyrs and nymphs. It has been sug- 
gested that these vessels were presents made by the bride- 
groom, and that the eyes were an allusion to the unveiling 
of the bride. 

In Case X. is a large amphora with designs in black, 



*68 ORVIBTO 

representing the nuptial procession o( Thetis and Peleus, 
who are seated in a chariot drawn by tour horses, and pre- 
ceded by Dionysos and Hermes. 

In Cases XL and XII. there are a tew examples of the 
later style with red figures upon a black ground, dating 
from the middle of the fifth century and onwards. They are 
Chiefly in the form of drinking bowls or wine jugs, with the 
figures o{ satyrs and dancing women, Silenus on his ass, 
and other subjects relating to the worship of Pionvsos. 

The Faina Coi LECTION 

A fine Etruscan collection derived from the excavations 
made in the neighbourhood of Orvieto and at Chiusi is to be 
seen in the Palazzo Faina (opposite to the Duomo\ open 
to visitors through the courtesy of the owner, Conte Faina. 
In the First Hall- 
Ranged along the floor are twelve terra-cotta cinerary 
chests from the neighbourhood of Chiusi, with sculptured 
figures upon the lids and reliefs upon the sides of the chests. 
The sculptures upon the lids are realistic portraits of the 
dead represented in the midst of the enjoyment o( life, 
eating, drinking, talking, or playing with their ornaments. 
The subjects of the reliefs below are in sharp contrast 
with the serenely contented men and women on the lids. 
They illustrate, as a rule, some tragic scene of combat, 
slaughter, murder, or sacrifice. The fate of mortals is 
shown to be in the hands of the gods, who make use ot 
death as a punishment for impiety or presumption. 

No. 3 has a sleeping- figure upon the lid, and on the side 
of the chest a drinking vessel, or Kantharos, sacred to 
Dionysos ; on either side of it is a dolphin. The dolphin is 
probably here as an emblem of the productive force of the 
sea, and hence its connection with Dionysos. 

No. 4 has on the lid the figure of a beautiful woman rest- 
ing gracefully upon her left elbow, which is supported by a 
pillow. The relief upon the chest represents a marine deity, 
figured as a woman down to the waist, and ending in twisted 
serpent tails. Figures of marine deities are common among 



ETRUSCAN ORVIBTO 269 

the Etruscans, who-.'; wealth depended greatly upon th^-ir 
maritime commerce! These figures do not correspond 
closely with any of the creations of Greek mythology. 
'I hey generally appear in combat with men, or threatening 
them with disaster, and Beem to imply the terrors and 
dangers which await those who go down to the sea in 
ships. 

No. 12. The recumbent statue of a man has a saucer- 
shaped bowl in his hand, resembling the Roman " Patera" 
In place of a handle this drinking vessel has a hollow-raised 
90Sfl ill the centre, into which the fingers could be inserted. 
The relief on the chest represents two warriors attacked by 
a balf'Clothed figure armed with a plough. This may repre- 
sent the mysterious ploughman who appeared suddenly in 
the battle of .Marathon and assisted the Greeks by killing 
many of the barbarians with his implement. 

Several of the bas-reliefs on the smaller urns with sleeping 
figures upon the lids have the same subject They are 
identical, and to all appearance have been cast from the 
same mould. Chests of this kind were probably kept in 
stock, and the lids with portraits of the dead were done on 
commission. 

The bas-relief of No. 11 represents the fratricidal combat 
between Eteokles and Polyneikes, the joint rulers of Thebes. 
This relief is a good example of the Etruscan treatment of a 
Greek theme. The dire result of the conflict, and the cer- 
tain end in store for the brothers, is signified by the intro- 
duction of a Fury, or Lasa, the messenger of death, who 
Stretches her arms towards the unhappy pair. 

No. 14 has a touching and simple scene of farewell 
between the living and the dead. Two persons stand 
before a door with their hands clasped, and beside each 
one is a Fury holding a torch. 

On the floor to the right of the entrance are a number of 
the strange cinerary vases called "canopi," with lids in 
the shape of human heads. They are found most com- 
monly in the neighbourhood of Chiusi, and date from the 
eighth and seventh centuries Ji.c. They are interesting 



270 ORVIBTO 

links in the history of the development of the art of sculp- 
ture in the round, among the Etruscans. It is evident that 
sincere efforts were made to secure a likeness in the rudely 
shaped head ; in order to increase the human resemblance, 
these canopi are often placed upon a seat of bronze or 
stone, and roughly formed arms ornamented with rings and 
bracelets are attached by means of pegs to the sides of the 
vase. 

The next image shows a still further advance in the 
power of representation. Here we have the roughly 
blocked-out figure of a man. The head is movable, and 
the hollow body was used as a receptacle for the ashes. 
The gradual development of sculpture from the rude human- 
headed vase to the full-sized recumbent figure upon the lid 
of the sarcophagus or chest is fully illustrated in the museum 
of Chiusi. On the shelves against the walls are a number 
of pieces of black Bucchero ware, some of which, notice- 
able for the high polish and lustrous finish, came from 
Castel Giorgio, two miles from Orvieto on the Viterbo road. 

Two shallow bowls or " Patera " should be noticed, Nos. 
495 and 439. On the shelf to the right of the entrance are 
a number of terra-cotta masks. Four are of women's 
faces of a somewhat idealised type, and may represent the 
attendant invisible spirits, genii or furies, or they may be 
personifications of Death. 

Nos. 380 and 381 are two masks of hideous demons with 
large noses, long tusks, and horns on their heads. They 
can be easily identified from the painted vases as the 
Etruscan Charun, the messenger of Death, who strikes 
down his victims with his mallet. 

On these shelves there are also a number of small objects 
of various forms and different materials, votive offerings 
to the gods who have the destiny of mortals in their keep- 
ing. These rudely formed images of bulls, deer, pigs, 
mothers suckling their babes, apples, plums, &c, were 
offered to the powers who presided over the reproductive 
forces of life. The small terra-cotta figures of men on 
horseback, and of chariots drawn by horses, which look so 



ETRUSCAN ORVIBTO 271 

like cheap playthings, represented the mysterious journey of 
the soul to the underworld. 

Several of the drinking cups have illustrations of the rites 
connected with the Dionysiac worship, and the shelves also 
contain some phallic emblems, which were probably worn 
as amulets. 

Room II. has a collection of consular and imperial 

coins. 

Room III. 

Bronzes. Case A, on the wall right of entrance, a num- 
ber of objects much restored. 

Case B. On the top shelf are several flesh hooks, with 
six or eight long prongs, sometimes curved and sometimes 
straight. They were probably used in the sacrifices for 
taking up or turning the burnt flesh, or possibly for raking 
together the ashes of the dead on the funeral pyre. 

In the same case are several good examples of the grace- 
ful candelabra, for which the Etruscan bronze - workers 
were famed throughout ancient Europe. 

Case C. On the upper shelf are three well-preserved 
helmets, one of iron ; also a number of axe-heads, lances, 
and spears. On the lower shelves are bronze amulets and 
idols, for the most part obtained from the neighbourhood of 
Perugia and Bettona. 

These small bronze figures were used for various purposes. 
Some were portable idols, carried about by the worshippers ; 
others were votive offerings made at the shrines of certain 
deities whose protection and favour were sought. Certain 
of the statuettes were attached to the bronze candelabra or 
braziers or other articles of sepulchral furniture. The 
exaggerated length of limb in several of these figures is 
an indication of the thoroughly practical character of these 
people, and of their inclination to place utility before 
beauty. Vows were no doubt made of offerings of a given 
size, and these attenuated figures fulfilled the requirements 
of height at the least possible expenditure of workmanship 
and material. 

In Case E, immediately above the entrance door, is a 



272 ORVIETO 

bronze brazier with the figures of Hippocampi at the 
corners. This vessel is provided with feet on wheels, and 
was probably dragged through the tombs for the purpose 
of fumigation during the funeral feast. The Hippocampus 
is the animal most frequently represented as the bearer of 
the soul to the underworld. 

Case D has a miscellaneous collection of vases, strigils, 
bracelets, rings, pins, and mirrors. These mirrors are 
polished on one side for reflection, and engraved for orna- 
ment upon the other. It is significant of the changes which 
took place in the habits, and probably in the character of 
the race, that no mirrors have been found in tombs earlier 
than the third century B.C., and that after that period they 
became very abundant. In a cave tomb near Orvieto, 
which had been used as a place of burial from 240 to 217 
B.C., there were found no less than eleven mirrors. The 
subjects upon them are as a rule mythological, but they 
never represent scenes of combat or death, and the 
attendant spirits who appear are of a different order from 
the hideous demons introduced in the sepulchral paintings 
and sculptures. The favourite deities figured on the mirrors, 
are Turan (or Venus), Phupluns (or Bacchus), Adonis, and 
Apollo, and the scenes chosen relate, as a rule, to the 
meeting of lovers, the triumph of beauty, and the exploits 
of heroes. 

Case G contains a number of flints in the shape of spears, 
arrows, and the like, found near Perugia and Orvieto. It 
is supposed that the Etruscans attached a superstitious value 
to these stones, and wore them as amulets. 

On the second and third shelves are necklaces, combs, 
and small glass bottles probably of foreign workmanship, 
imported into Etruria by the Phoenicians. In the case in 
the centre of the room are a number of gold ornaments 
dating from the fourth century B.C. 

Room IV. 

has a number of vases chiefly in the shape of a drinking 
cup called by the Greeks Kylix^ in archaic Style with 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 273 

black designs upon a red ground. This style belongs to 
the fifth and sixth centuries B.C. A large proportion of the 
examples were probably imported from Greece. 

Room V. 

has an important collection of Bucchero ware, illustrating 
the gradual development of the industry from the primitive 
coarse vases of blackish grey colour up to the lustrous well- 
formed pottery of later date. 

Room VI. 

Fainted Vases. The large majority of these vases are 
probably Greek importations, but several are obviously of 
Etruscan workmanship from the fashion in which grotesque 
and realistic details are added to the usual Hellenic con- 
ceptions of the scene. 

Three of the vases, Nos. 19, 20, 21, on the shelf to the 
left of the entrance, are interesting illustrations of the 
Etruscan representations of the after-life of the spirit. 
The technical qualities of the vases are mediocre, and the 
style of the design poor. They are mounted upon a 
revolving stand, so that the whole of the figures can be 
inspected. 

No. 19. Here is represented the place of the Shades, 
the region of darkness and terror, guarded by the three- 
headed Cerberus with a serpent tail. The unhappy victim 
of death, represented as an old man, stands between two 
brutal figures, Charuns, one of whom is armed with a 
hammer, and two great serpents raise their heads close 
beside him. Turning the vase, we see the chariot of the 
King and Queen of Hades, drawn by two dragons, and this 
in turn is followed by a Fury, or some personification of 
death, a naked, winged woman holding a scroll with the 
word " Vanth," death. 

No. 21 is almost identical with No. 19. 

No. 20 represents a funeral car drawn by two mules, 
bearing the body to the sepulchre. This is followed by a 
scene from the underworld to which the spirit of the dead 



274 ORVIETO 

has migrated. The King of Hades appears in his chariot, 
preceded by a figure of Charun, and followed by a personi- 
fication of Death holding a closed book, significant of the 
life that has ended. 

The Medieval Collection 

This collection is in the large hall of the Palazzo Soliano. 

Under the second window, on the right of the entrance, is 
a fine piece of carving of Italo-Byzantine workmanship. 
Peacocks and other birds eating grapes are enclosed by an 
interlacing scroll. The slab is said to date from the eighth 
century, and originally formed part of an altar screen in the 
Monastery of La Badia, outside of the town. 

Against the wall are a number of pieces of the old choir 
stalls from the Duomo, and a large chorale with figures of 
the Apostles in intarsiatura. These are the work of Tura 
dell Ammanato of Siena and of Giovanni Talini, and are 
dated 1333. 

Between the second and third windows to the right are a 
number of pictures. 

No. 38. A Crucifixion, attributed to Margaritone of Arezzo 
(1236-1313?), represents a painfully contorted figure. 

No. 16. A small easel picture of the Crucifixion, by 
Spinello Aretino (1333 ?-i4io), with a gilt background. 

No. 59. By Simone Martini (i285?-i344), a Madonna 
and Child under a trefoil arch. Above Mary's head are the 
symbols of the Alpha and Omega, and on either side are 
angels with sceptres and orbs inscribed " TroniP 

No. 64, by Simone Martini. This picture, known as the 
" Trasimundo Madonna," was painted for Trasimundo, the 
Bishop of Savona, who is represented kneeling at the left 
corner of the picture. The four saints are St. Dominic and 
the Magdalene, in the upper compartments ; St. Paul and 
St. Peter below. 

No. 40. A small picture by a follower of Giotto. Madonna 
is seated in the centre with the Child, on the left St. Agnes 
and St. Paul, on the right a woman saint with a blazing 
vase, and St. Peter. 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 275 

Hanging on the wall is a marble basin, for a holy water 
stoup, by Desiderio da Settignano (1428-63), the most 
noted pupil of Donatello. The outside of the basin is 
carved with a rich design of leaves, and in the inside are 
fish, crabs, and other dwellers in the sea in high relief. 

A magnificent collection of vestments is placed in the 
cases in the middle of the hall. One of these cases con- 
tains a number of mitres, in connection with which it is 
told that the Bishop of Orvieto was entitled to wear five 
mitres, significant of the five dioceses over which he 
presided. 

In a case on the right side of the hall is a graceful 
censer attributed to Benvenuto Cellini (1500-71) and a 
silver gilt pastoral Staff, which belonged to Cardinal 
Simoncelli. Notice also in Case XIV., a quaint little casket 
of the fourteenth century, of painted wood, interesting on 
account of the subjects of a romantic and chivalrous charac- 
ter. On the side facing the window is a Fountain of Love, 
in the centre of the world, " // Mondo" and around the foun- 
tain are gathered knights and ladies. On the opposite side 
of the casket are a number of kings with their names 
inscribed, amongst which can be distinguished the kings of 
Portugal, Aragon, France, Sicily, England. In the centre 
of the hall are several statues of the Pisan school de- 
serving of notice. 

Two wooden figures of the Angel Gabriel and of the 
Virgin were at one time attributed to Friedrich of Freiburg, 
but are now ascribed to the Pisan school. Traces of colour 
show that the figures were once painted in a realistic 
manner. A small marble statue of Madonna and Child, by 
Nino Pisano, resembles the work of the grandfather Niccolo 
rather than that of the father Giovanni. It is a pleasant 
figure with a simple and naive expression, but it is somewhat 
spoiled by the trifling device of making the arms of the 
Virgin, and the Child's head, movable. 

The most notable object in the centre of the hall is, per- 
haps, the beautiful reliquary made to contain the head of 
S. Savino. It was made by Ugolino da Maestro Vieri 



276 ORVIETO 

and Vivo da Siena (working in 1337). This graceful and 
beautiful piece of goldsmith's work was done by the artists 
as a proof of their ability to undertake the making of the 
reliquary for the Corporale in the Duomo. 

Along the walls of the room are a number of large 
marble statues of the Apostles and some saints, by sculp- 
tors of the sixteenth century. St. Sebastian is the work of 
Lo Scalza, and St. Matthew is attributed to Giovanni da 
Bologna. For the most part they are tasteless productions, 
and have been wisely removed to the museum from the nave 
of the Duomo. 

Under the third window to the ' left on entering is a small 
picture by Luca Signorelli (1441-1523), painted upon 
terra-cotta, representing his own portrait and that of Nic- 
colo Franceschi, the camerlingo of the Duomo, and dated 
1504. 

Close beside this window is the bronze top of a candela- 
brum, formed by four little statuettes of the Doctors of the 
Church. 

Between the second and third windows of the left wall is 
a picture of the Magdalene by Luca Signorelli, a large 
heavy figure, and without charm of colour. Beside this is a 
heavily over-painted panel of the school of Giotto, repre- 
senting the Virgin and Child with Saints Savino and 
Giovenale. The picture comes from the old Church of 
S. Giovenale. 

On the entrance wall, close to the door, are some fine 
pieces of leather wall hangings of the fourteenth, fifteenth, 
and sixteenth centuries. Such hangings as these were 
largely used in the decoration of Orvietan palaces. 



THE DUOMO 

THE DATE AND STYLE OF THE BUILDING 

[The Duomo of Orvieto is one of the most elaborate 
examples of that particular kind of Gothic architecture 
which found favour for a comparatively short time south 



THE DUOMO 277 

of the Alps. This style had been introduced into Italy 
perhaps late in the twelfth century, certainly early in the 
thirteenth. Throughout this latter century "there was a 
tendency to naturalise many of the ideas that were moving 
architects and sculptors north of the Alps. 

Giovanni Pisano (died 1320) had adopted what may be 
called the Italian Gothic style for the facade of the Duomo 
at Siena, and when Arnolfo del Cambio began to build the 
Duomo of Florence in the last years of the thirteenth 
century, he used the same manner. In these adaptations 
there is a lack of spontaneity and freedom. The Italian 
architect employed the northern forms without sympathising 
fully in the northern spirit. 

The design at Orvieto is distinctly formal and flat ; the 
architect was not working at his ease, he was indeed using 
a style forced on him by the fashion of the time. And yet, 
though it is easy to criticise the shortcomings of the build- 
ing it would be hard to exaggerate its magnificence. 

Most of the mosaics, it is true, are modern restorations ; 
but at a sufficient distance, where the heavy forms and 
puerile attitudes are not distinguishable, the colour of these 
pictures has a fine effect. No monument in Italy can show 
such a lovely blending of marbles shading off into delicate 
yellows and pinks as those which surround the great door- 
ways and form a setting for the mosaics. 

The four piers which flank the western doorways are 
covered with reliefs which are among the best examples of 
Italian sculpture. It is characteristic that the work should 
be in bas-relief, which can hardly be seen at a short distance 
from the building. The porches at Chartres remind us that 
the sculptors north of the Alps knew better how to make 
their work effective. 

It has usually been assumed that Lorenzo Maitani of 
Siena was the first architect of the Duomo ; but if, as is 
supposed, Maitani was born in 1275, and the building was 
begun in 1290, we must look elsewhere. 

So far as the artistic record of the time goes, two men 
only seem possible, viz., Giovanni Pisano who, according 



278 ORVIBTO 

to Vasari, had designed the facade of the Duomo at Siena 
a few years earlier, and Arnolfo del Cambio, who began the 
building of Sta. Maria del Fiori at Florence a few years 
later than the building at Orvieto. There is no direct 
evidence, and we must be content to know that the design 
for Orvieto followed the lines of the great Tuscan architects 
of the time, and that certainly in 1310, if not before, Lorenzo 
Maitani became architect. 

In 1293 there is a record of the principal men who were 
connected with the work. They were Ramo di Paganello of 
Siena ; Fra Guglielmo, a pupil of Niccolo Pisano ; and 
Jacomo di Cosma Romana (of the Cosmati family). Fra 
Bevignate, who built the aqueduct at Perugia, was also 
there, and he was Capo Operaio for some time before 1300. 

At the time of the settlement of Maitani in 13 10, it is 
supposed that the facade was still unbuilt, and it is thought 
that he altered the plan, so that the two sides were carried 
up higher, and were finished off with gables in the same way 
as the central member of the design. 

In 1 32 1 Maitani set up a factory for making material for 
the mosaics, and there are frequent entries in the accounts 
for glass from Venice. Marble was brought from Rome, 
from Carrara, and from Monte Specchio, near Siena, and 
alabaster was obtained at Montalcino. 

When Lorenzo Maitani died in 1330, he was succeeded 
by his son Niccolo, who was assisted by his brother Vitale 
and a certain Meo of Orvieto. Andrea Pisano was ap- 
pointed Capo Maestro in 1347. Pie was succeeded by his 
son, Nino, who began to build the chapel of the Corporale in 
1350 — working on foundations that had been laid in the 
time of Maitani. 

The round window of the facade is mentioned as early as 
1354. It was carried on under Andrea Orcagna, who became 
Capo Maestro in 1359. It was not finished until twenty 
years later. 

In 1397 money was left to build the Capella Nuova or 
Capella di S. Brizio. The work was begun in 1408 and 
finished in 141 9. v 



THE DUOMO 279 

In 145 1 the design of the upper part of the facade was 
altered by Antonio Federighi. The row of niches above the 
circular window was added, thus raising the height of 
the central part of the building. 

The Statues for the niches round the circular window 
were not executed until long after. Moschino (d. 1578), 
Ippolito Scalza (working 1579), Raffaello da Montelupo and 
others, were concerned in the sculpture between the years 
1555 and 1578.] 

The Facade 

[The building of the Duomo was due to a desire to com- 
memorate the miracle of Bolsena. In it the Church saw a 
divine recognition of the sacrifice of the Mass. By this 
manifestation, the healing power of the Passion was con- 
firmed to every man in the daily sacrament of the altar. 
The priest whose doubt was set at rest at Bolsena was only 
one among many who in the thirteenth century hesitated to 
accept the teaching of the Church, and the desire was 
natural that the miracle worked for his benefit should be 
made known to the world. 

The general design of the church is therefore a testimony 
to the mystery of the Incarnation and its embodiment in 
the sacrament of the Eucharist. The dedication of the 
church was in the name of the Virgin Mary. It is in the 
teaching of St. Bernard, the spiritual leader of the twelfth 
century, that we realise the relation which the Virgin had to 
the religious feeling of the time. Madonna was the royal 
way by which men could ascend to Christ, as by it He 
descended to mankind. She was the mediatrix and advo- 
cate between Christ and man. It was her abundant charity 
that concealed the multitude of men's sins. 

As the Incarnation is the central idea of the building, 
we find its realisation in the Divine Child seated on his 
mother's knee, placed in the most conspicuous point over 
the central doorway on the western fagade. On the pinnacle 
above this doorway there is the Paschal Lamb, the sacrifice 
of the Passover being a type of the sacrifice of Christ. In 



280 ORVIETO 

the mosaics we have the detail of the life of the Virgin 
Mary. Around the Rose window are gathered the Pro- 
phets, Apostles, and Doctors of the Church militant. 
And on the four piers about the western doors there is 
a history Of the world from the time in which all things 
came forth from God until they return to their justification 
in Him. 

The sculpture and the mosaic over the entire facade may 
be regarded as a mirror of the universe in which man may 
perceive the true nature of his being, and the whence and 
the whither of his existence. 

The mosaics on the upper part of the facade depict the 
life of the Virgin. The picture over the right ha?id western 
door represents the " Nativity of Madonna." The angel 
appears to Joachim and to Anna, and at the sides there 
stand the prophets Nahum and Isaiah, with legends suffi- 
ciently preserved to enable us to identify their words. The 
extract from the prophecy of Nahum is contained in iii. 17, 
" When the sun is arisen the enemies of God flee away like 
locusts." The extract from Isaiah is in ix. 2, " The people 
that walked in darkness have seen a great light." 

In the right ha?id gable there is the " Presentation of the 
Virgin in the Temple." In the corresponding gable to the 
left is the " Sposalizio," and over the left hand door is the 
" Baptism of Christ," with the " Annunciation " immediately 
above it. Over the ce?itral doorway is the Assumption of 
Madonna, and in the central gable " the Coronation." 

The wheel window has for its centre, Christ with a cruci- 
form nimbus, the niches at the side are occupied by twelve 
Prophets, and in the niches above the window are twelve 
Apostles. In the four corners are the four Doctors of the 
Latin Church ; SS. Gregory and Jerome in the upper corners 
and SS. Ambrose and Augustine below. On the four piers 
above the doorways are the four symbols of the Evangelists. 
It is a realisation of the saying of St. Paul, " And He gave 
some Apostles, and some Prophets, and some Evangelists, 
and some pastors and teachers . . . that we henceforth be 
no more children . . . but that speaking the truth in love 



THE DUO MO 281 

we may grow up unto Him in all things, which is the head, 
even Christ."] 

The Sculpture on the Piers 

[We must now consider the sculptures about the western 
doorways of the Duomo. Whether they be considered- as 
works of mediaeval art or as illustrations of the mediaeval 
mind, they are of great importance. 

Authorship and date of the bas-reliefs. There is no 
direct evidence as to the authorship or date of these sculp- 
tures. There is a general agreement that they are due to 
followers of the school founded by Niccolo Pisano (1206?- 
1280), and continued under changing influences by Giovanni 
Pisano (d. 1320) and Andrea Pisano (died after 1349) ; but 
there is a difference of opinion as to whether the sculptors 
belonged to the company who had worked on the Duomo 
of Siena, or whether they were Florentines. The date is 
equally uncertain. Some authorities place the work as 
early as 13 10, others believe that part of it is due to the 
time of Andrea Orcagna, who was Capo Maestro in 1359— 
60. It is evident that several hands have been at work, 
and many years were probably spent upon it. In general 
effect there is more likeness to works of the Florentine 
school than to any known Sienese sculpture. The style sug- 
gests a date later than that of the panels on the Campanile 
at Florence. So far as such uncertain indications go, it may 
perhaps be tentatively accepted that the work was done 
about the middle of the fourteenth century, and under 
the influence of Andrea Pisano, Capo Maestro (1347-49), 
and Andrea Orcagna, Capo Maestro (1359-60). 

These reliefs take their place with the Fountain at 
Perugia (1280), the reliefs on the Campanile at Florence 
(after 1334), and the relief on the tabernacle of Or San 
Michele (circa 1360) as among the best of all Italian 
sculptures. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that they 
are the finest works executed south of the Alps since the 
time of the great Greek masters. 

It will be noticed that all the monuments just named 



282 ORVIBTO 

(with some exception on the Fountain at Perugia) consist 
of works in more or less low-relief. This distinguishes them 
from the sculpture of French artists who were accustomed 
to work in the round. 

In the Orvietan reliefs a certain over-graciousness takes 
the place of the strong imaginative quality of northern 
work. The figure of Christ fails in impressiveness, there 
is no fit conception of the creative power in act. So filled 
is the artist with the grace and beauty of this world that he 
fails to grasp the wider ideal ; he is satisfied to represent the 
mystery of creation in terms of real life. If, on the one 
hand, Byzantine art disregards human feeling to concern 
itself mainly with the abstract and general, it is equally true 
that this Pisan-Florentine art loses the power of expressing 
the supernatural in its search after the emotions of ordinary 
humanity. We feel the want of ability to express an exist- 
ence not limited by human conditions. We are not inspired 
with awe by a presence aloof from and beyond our own. 
Nor is the expression of the deeper passions of our nature 
successfully mastered. Such scenes as the Massacre of the 
Innocents and the Despair of the Damned are dealt with 
conventionally. 

But when this is said there is little left to criticise. It 
would be hard to find anything more graceful and pictur- 
esque than the lower scenes on the first pier. There is 
complete command over form, either in rest or motion. We 
may notice, for instance, the subtle discrimination between 
the unanimated form of Adam and his form when lying 
asleep, while the graceful rendering of the angels has just 
that quality of distinction and reserve which distinguishes 
it from the works of the fifteenth century Renaissance. 
There is a variety of style even among these lower panels. 
Adam and Eve in the garden in Nos. 7 and 8 (Plan XVII.), 
show a tendency to shortness of body, largeness of head 
and heaviness of feature, which is not found in the Creation 
series, Nos. 3, 4, and 5 (Plan XVII.). 

The use of sculpture in bas-relief has allowed full play 
to the artists' sense for the beauty of landscape and the 



THE DUO MO 283 

forms of vegetation, which add so great a charm to the 
design. 

The second pier is considered the least interesting as 
a work of art. There is an easy command of method, there 
is freedom of pose and a sufficient sense of action, but there 
is a certain heaviness and want of distinction and a lack 
of vigour and feeling. The design at the foot of the pier 
where the prophets and rulers are seen, may be compared 
with the similar part of the third pier. In the latter there 
is far more dramatic force, those who hold their scrolls are 
instinct with life, the character of the figures is more virile 
and of a higher type, the sleeping patriarch is more digni- 
fied. The love of landscape breaks out again in the third 
pier, as it does on the -first ; the scene is set among trees, 
each one of which is a study, there are olives and figs and 
many oaks such as those that still add a charm to the hills 
and valleys of Central Italy. 

The sculpture of the life of Christ is of fine quality. We 
are struck at once by the simplicity and the dramatic feeling 
of most of the scenes. The Annunciation, it is true, is some- 
what artificial, but of any such fault the Visitation is entirely 
clear. There is a true balance between human feeling and 
the sense of the divine mystery which brings the two women 
together. The Nativity recalls a Byzantine model, and to 
this is added a certain human grace and tenderness making 
it as a whole one of the most beautiful representations in 
Italian art. 

The Adoration of the Magi is only second in merit to 
the Nativity. It suffers from overcrowding and it verges 
on the narrative style of treatment, and yet it is a fine 
work, worthy of the best traditions of a great school. The 
sculpture on the fourth pier is less remarkable than the 
work on the first and third piers.] 

The Subjects of the Bas-Reliefs 
The designs upon the four piers are devoted to the drama 
of human salvation treated in an elaborate system of type 
and antitype. 



284 ORVIETO 

Each design is pictured in the form of a tree, and the 
leading idea is the opposition of the expectation of the 
Prophets, with the realisation of the Gospel. 

The First Pier 

The ivy branches in which the subjects are set symbolise 
everlasting life. They are typical of the idea that those 
who die in Christ never cease to live. 

Begin with the lower panels. We are at once struck with 
the fact that the subject is not historically treated. It is not 
a sculptured version of the early chapters of Genesis j it is 
an attempt to set forth the spiritual significance of the facts, 
and to suggest the relationship between the Creator and 
humanity. The work of the first four days appears in its 
results only, nor is the Rest of the seventh day represented. 
It is only the creation of the fifth and sixth days, when 
fowls, fishes, cattle, creeping things, and man were made, 
that is shown to us in operation. 

Plan XVII. (p. 287). 

In No. 1 the work of creation is effected by the Trinity, 
represented by the Hand of God, by the figure of Christ, 
and by the Dove of the Holy Spirit. The manifestation of 
power by means of the Hand, gives existence ; the Wisdom 
of the Word gives the rational nature by which man 
becomes deserving of praise and blame ; the Love of the 
Holy Spirit gives holiness, by which man is capable of 
receiving the righteousness of God. 

The account of Creation in Genesis was regarded as a 
type of the way of God with man. The Spirit that moved 
on the face of the waters was significant of that divine power 
which substituted for the disorder of human sinfulness the 
divine order. The herb yielding seed is the soul zealous to 
do good works. The lights which are set in the firmament 
signify the gifts of the Spirit. Man was created in the 
image of God, which signifies that he should be able to 
know. He was created in the likeness of God so that he 
might love. 



THE DUOMO 285 

Thus the creation of temporal things became a mirror, 
in which man saw reflected the conditions of his spiritual 
life. 

No. 1 on the Plan XVII. represents the work of the 
fifth day. There is the firmament above, in which are 
the sun, moon, and stars. Below are the waters which 
have been gathered together, there is also the dry land and 
there are fruit-bearing trees. Fishes and birds have just 
come into existence as manifestations of the creative power 
of the Trinity, represented by the Hand, by Christ, and by 
the Dove. 

No. 2. Creation of Beasts and creeping things. 

No. 3. Creation of the body of man, in which the 
unanimated figure lies on the ground. 

No. 4. The still unanimated figure stands before Christ, 
who conveys the living spirit (Par. vii. 137, 144). 

No. 5. Adam lies asleep on the ground, while Christ 
bends over him and cuts the rib from his side. 

The sleep of Adam is a type of the sleep of Christ upon 
the Cross, and as from the side of the sleeping Adam came 
the woman Eve, so from the side of Christ came forth the 
Sacraments of the Church. 

No. 6. The final act of Creation is that in which Eve 
rises from the side of Adam. She is animated by the in- 
forming hand of Christ laid on her shoulder. We now pass 
from Creation to the state of mankind in the world. 

No. 7. Adam and Eve are placed in Paradise, and they 
are forbidden to eat of the tree of the knowledge of good and 
evil. In each of these scenes Christ is attended by two 
angels, and in this panel one of them seems to pray that 
man may be preserved from the coming temptation which 
the other indicates by a warning gesture. Adam and Eve 
stand under a fig-tree, and behind them is the fountain from 
which come the four rivers of Paradise. This is a figure of 
the source of grace which is spread over the earth even 
as the streams flow from the garden to the four quarters 
of the world. 

No. 8. Temptation and Fall. The Devil took the form 



286 ORVIETO 

of a serpent. He is twined round the stem of the fig-tree, 
and the fang of the reptile is thrust towards Eve as she gives 
the forbidden fruit to Adam. The newly created pair were 
not content to discern good and evil by commandment, they 
must learn by experiment, and in their disobedience they 
became subject to death. Man lost the light of the invisible 
and became absorbed in the visible. Salvation was only 
possible in so far as the inner sense which was thus lost 
could be restored. It is the history of this restoration which 
is set forth on the rest of the sculpture. It is completed in 
the final vision of the fourth pier, where the blessed see God 
as He is. 

No. 9 represents the shame and confusion of Adam and 
Eve as they hide under the trees from the sight of God, who 
called Adam as He walked in the garden. In trying to re- 
present the misery of the Fall the sculptor has lost the 
conception of the wider issues involved ; he shows us the 
personal degradation rather than the tragedy of the entrance 
of disorder into the world. 

No. 10. The Expulsion from Paradise. An angel lays 
his hand on the shoulder of Adam as a warning that they 
must leave the garden. Already there is a line of flame and 
a six-winged seraph with a drawn sword guarding against 
any return. 

No. ii. Adam hoeing and Eve spinning. This is the 
beginning of the work of restoration. It was provided by 
divine pity that man should be rescued from some of the 
physical effects of the Fall by the labour of this present life. 
After that comes the recompense of everlasting rest. Our 
hearts and bodies must be alike prepared to a holy obe- 
dience. The necessity of the discipline of labour was 
thoroughly recognised in mediaeval society. In the rules 
of St. Basil and St. Benedict work was one of the primary 
duties, and the former specially provided that devotional 
exercises should be no excuse for avoiding the duty of 
labour. 

Nos. 12 and 13. The Sacrifice of Cain and Abel and the 
Death of Abel. These two sons of Adam were regarded as 



THE DUO MO 287 

the founders of the two cities, the mystical Jerusalem and 




Plan XVII.— First Pier, Duomo, Orvieto 

the mystical Babylon. Abel was the first-fruits of that 
Church which existed from the beginning of the world. Cain 



igure of . s he was 

vs of their 
lived in th< 
the Gospel '." e sact fioe of Abol was the type of the 

th lie was a 

: .s the 
the s. bes said Pharisees, who fulfilled their duties 
within were full of wickedness. Cain and 
Abe] q principles of i 

Nos, 14. 15- 16 represent a child learning grammar, a man 

playing on bells. 1 of geometry. It is an 

me of the development of human energy. Gramm 

gh which the child passes in his first search 
after knowledge. Music stands for that principle of propor- 
tion and symmetry which enters into every relation, physi- 
cal, iv. i spiritual. It was regarded as a type o\ the 
common bond by which all things are composed into one 
harmonious creation. Geometry was considered as being 
the study ot immovable matter, and its significance eon- 
m its tendency to lead men to perceive continuous 
existence and the unchangeable essence that lies beyond. 

Grammar, music, and geometry epitomise, therefore, the 
arts by which man learned to satisfy his wants. Through 
these arts social life became possible, and so cities were 
built and kingdoms were established. The knowledge 
necessary for practical life led to the higher studies o\ 
philosophy, and these in their turn led to the searching out 
of divine things. That which connects this series of sculp- 
tures with the others is the hope that is held out to mankind, 
even in the Fall and the expulsion from Paradise Every detail 
of creation was a type of divine mercy. In the scene oi the 
Temptation and Fall there is the fountain, the type of divine 
grace. In the Murder oi Abel there is the type of the 
sacrifice of Christ. In the scenes oi labour and oi the 
invention of the arts there is the beginning oi the work of 
restoration. 



THE DUOMO yy.-j 

7 ; ■., Pies 

Plan XVIII. (p. 294)- 

'I },< 

kmnao aaeaftrjr of the Messiah ipi 

'.'."o. r/;. [fl the b 

. of the Proplu 
Christ. 'J be fbllowu otion incl 

which appear tc 
'I ben • re not 

dentified 

nded 
to represent, not ar< obvic '. 

attributions must only be ad for 

are if) many in J J. 

Smith am tilth. 

Above the figure of Jesse are six righteous Kings '- 
House of David (No, 18). 'I be first king has a harp, and he 
may be identified as David ; tb< erhaps 

Solomon. 'I hd a, Je- 

boshaphat, Hezekiah, and Josiab. Above these . [adonna 

0) 1 nd Christ (No. 20). They both bear closed bo 
for "the words are closed up Jed tiJ] the end of 

nn.': ,; (Dan. /H. 0). 

No. si. 'J he skeleton of Adam in its coffin recalls the 
of St Paul, " i'or since by man came death, by man 
also came the resurrection of the dead" (1 Cor. srv. 20). 
The sculpture on this pier is the expression of the vision 
which the Hebrew prophets bad of the coming of the Man 
who was to liberate humanity from the bondage of death, 

'J here are in the lower courses a number of figures. 
22 and 23. They are probably those of prophets and rulers 
of the people of the Jews. One of these, however, with 
covered feet and with a crown or garland on his head, 
has been identified as Virgil, who was supposed to have 
prophesied of Christ in quoting the vision of the Cumasan 
Sibyl. (See Panel *8.) 

1 



2QO ORVIETO 

Nos. 24 and 25. Balaam's Ass sees the angel and 
Balaam prophesies concerning the Star which shall come 
out of Jacob (Numb. xxiv. 17). 

No. 26. Gideon wrings the water out of the fleece ; the 
dry fleece also lies on the ground. God's choice of Mary 
when He desired to be incarnate was prefigured by the 
fleece of Gideon, which alone was wet ; so Mary alone of 
the many daughters of Israel was found worthy. The 
water wrung out of the fleece was a figure of the grace 
which comes by Christ, while the dry fleece signified the 
people of the Jews. 

No. 27. The Consecration of David by the prophet 
Samuel. This passing from the care of the sheepfolds 
to the ruling of men was a type of how the Gospel was 
offered to the Gentiles, when the Jews, the sheep of the 
flock, would not hear it. Jesse, the father of David, holds 
up his hands in the attitude of prayer as if he had a vision 
of the descent of the Spirit on his son (1 Sam. xvi. 6-13). 

No. 28. This scene has been identified as representing 
the prophecy of the Cumaean Sibyl quoted by Virgil. An 
old man presents the Child to two women, who hold between 
them a globe. The reference made by Virgil to the 
Sibylline verse runs as follows : " The last age of the 
Cumean song comes, the great series of ages takes rise 
from the beginning. Now the Virgin returns, now the 
kingdoms of Saturn return. Now a new lineage is sent 
down from heaven. Be favourable, O pure Lucina, to the 
boy at his birth, through whom the iron age will first be 
brought to an end, and -the golden age will arise over the 
whole world." 

No. 29. Christ in the act of blessing appears to a 
number of men and women who hold up their hands in 
adoration. It is probably a description of Isaiah ix. 2 : 
" The people that walked in darkness have seen a great 
light : they that dwell in the land of the shadow of death, 
upon them hath the light shined." (See Matt. iv. 12-16 and 
Ephes. v. 8.) 

No. 30. This scene is probably a comment on Dan. ii. 34, 



THE DUO MO 291 

in which the prophet sees a stone cut without hands. It 

became a great mountain and filled the whole earth, as by 
faith in Christ all the ends of the earth are filled. 

No. 31. This is a reference to Ezekiel xlvii. 1— 13, in 
which waters issue from under the threshold of the house 
of the Lord. These waters make a great river going down 
into the desert and into the sea, healing its waters. Every- 
thing shall live whithersoever it comes, and on its banks 
shall grow every tree for meat, whose leaf shall not wither, 
neither shall the fruit thereof fail (see also Rev. xxii. 1-2). 
The windows and doors of the church to the right of the 
panel are filled with foliage. 

No. 32 probably represents the childhood of Immanuel 
(Isa. vii. 14). Below we. see the results of the establishment 
of this power, typified by the change of nature which causes 
beasts, savage and tame alike, to live together in peace and 
harmony (see Isa. xi. 1-9, also Matt. i. 23). 

No. 33. The Vision of Ezekiel, i. 4-28, in which the 
prophet sees the likeness of the four living creatures. The 
sculpture shows us Christ in an aureole in the act of 
blessing, and surrounded by the four creatures. The 
living creature having the likeness of a man represents 
reason, the creature with the likeness of an ox stands for 
the spirit of sacrifice, the lion symbol is the type of fortitude 
and justice, and the eagle stands for contemplation. Thus 
the four symbols represented the light of the Gospel, and 
taken together they stood for Christ. It was a vision of 
the time when the Gospel would take the place of Law, and 
when Christ would do away with its ordinances. 

No. 34. This represents the story in 2 Maccabees iii. 
14-40. The priests of the Temple at Jerusalem acted as 
guardians of money belonging to widows and orphans. 
King Antiochus sent Heliodorus to take this treasure. 
When the latter was in the treasury with his guards there 
appeared a horse with a terrible rider. Heliodorus was 
smitten to the ground, and two young men, notable in 
strength and beautiful in glory, beat him with many stripes. 
On the intercession of Onias, the high priest, his life was 



292 ORVIETO 

granted to him, and he offered a sacrifice and vowed vows 
seeing that he had thus escaped. When the king asked 
Heliodorus who else should be sent, he answered that if 
there were any enemy or any conspirator against the king 
he should go, for there was about the place a power ot 
God. The chastisement of Heliodorus was regarded as a 
type of Christ driving out the money changers from the 
Temple. 

No. 35. This panel probably represents the prophecy of 
Isaiah ii. and iii., in which the destruction of Jerusalem 
is foreseen as the result of the backsliding of the nation. 
The particular part chosen for representation may be that 
spoken of in Isaiah iii. 13-14: "The Lord standeth up to 
plead, and standeth to judge the people. The Lord will 
enter into judgment with the ancients of his people and the 
princes thereof : for ye have eaten up the vineyard ; the 
spoil of the poor is in your houses." 

No. 36. This is probably a reference to Zech. xi. 12, "So 
they weighed for my hire thirty pieces of silver," which was 
understood by the commentators as a prophecy of the 
betrayal. We are also reminded by such passages as 

1 Samuel ii. 3 and Proverbs xvi. 2, that God's ways are 
not as man's ways, and that it is God who weigheth the 
spirits. 

No. 57 is probably a representation of the vision in 

2 Esdras ix. 38-47 and x. 1-17, in which a woman sorrow- 
ing for her son comes out of the city into the field, and 
mourns and fasts so that she may die. The woman (2 
Esdras x. 44-49) is Zion ; she mourns for the City of Jerusalem, 
whose destruction is signified by the death of the woman's 
son. Then is shown to the prophet (2 Esdras x. 50-54), 
the future brightness of the glory and the comeliness of the 
beauty of the city of the Most High, even as it had been 
shown to the woman in the field (2 Esdras x. 16) that she 
should again receive her son and be praised among 
women. 

No. 38. The Crucifixion. This is not a representation of 
the historical event, but rather a Recognition of the prophetic 



THE DUOMO 293 

view that it was the victory on the Cross by which the bonds 
of sin were to be loosed, and the whole world to be recon- 
ciled. The sun and the moon, the only details of the 
picture, recall Psalms cxlviii. 2-3. They were also supposed 
to represent the two Testaments and likewise the divine 
and human nature united in Christ. 

No. 39. The " man Gabriel " appears to the prophet Daniel 
(ix. 21-26), and shows him when "the anointed one, the 
prince" shall come, and how "the anointed one" shall 
be cut off. 

No. 40 probably refers to the declaration made in Malachi 
iv. 2, " But unto you that fear My name, shall the sun of 
righteousness arise with healing in His wings." 

No. 41. The Archangel Gabriel in Annunciation. He 
flies towards Madonna, who sits in the central line below 
Christ. Mary raises her hand as she says, " Behold the 
handmaid of the Lord, be it unto me according to thy word " 
(Luke i. 38). 

This series of prophecies is remarkable, inasmuch as it 
represents the spirit of the Kingdom of Christ to which the 
world looked forward, rather than any mere accordance 
between the terms of prophecy and the actual events of the 
life of Christ. It would have been easy to take each fact as 
described on the third pier and give its exact prophetical 
parallel on the second. Something more than that has 
been attempted : the prophecies of the second pier have a 
direct bearing on the coming of Christ ; but there is also 
everywhere a suggestion of the spiritual results that are 
to mark the new order. 

The new horizon is the subject of the Sibyl's prophecy 
(No. 28) ; the new spirit, which is to animate it, is the note of 
the vision of Ezekiel (No. 33). The descent of the Spirit 
and the gift of grace are foreseen in the Consecration of 
David (No. 27), and the dew which Gideon wrings out of 
the fleece (No. 26). The new life, which the Gospel is to 
bring with it, is described by the river which brings healing 
to all things (No. 31). The scene from Isaiah (No. 29) 
shows that this new life will no longer be lived in a world of 



294 ORVIETO 

shadows, but in the full light of the skill and understand- 



G^GcoXeXQ^o 




oCFHyZXD 




zz 



17 



^ 



Plan XVIII.— Second Pier, Duomo, Orvieto 

ing which Gabriel comes to gi\\e to Daniel (No. 39). The 



THE DUOMO 295 

stone which fills the earth (No. 30) is a figure of all-pervad- 
ing Faith ; the prophet preaches Hope to the mother who 
has lost her son, and who is to regain him (No. 37) ; while 
in the Crucifixion (No. 38) there is the supreme sacrifice 
prompted by Love. The stories of Balaam (Nos. 24, 25) 
and Heliodorus (No. 34) illustrate the power of the Spirit 
when it is opposed to the worldly element in men's lives, 
and the prophecy of Isaiah (No. 35) warns against a selfish 
oppression of the poor. Finally there is the contrast be- 
tween the disobedience ending in the death of Adam, and 
the obedience of Mary, which leads to the fulfilment of all 
prophecy and to the beginning of the reign of the spiritual 



The Third Pier 
Plan XIX. (p. 298). 

We now turn to the third pier, on which is sculptured a 
history of the life of Christ. The Doctors of the Middle 
Ages taught, that they who desired to behold the Glory of 
Christ's Divine Nature must follow the journey of His 
mortal life ; we have therefore such epitomes as the one 
before us. The choice of subjects, limited as it is pretty 
closely to those connected with the Nativity and Passion, 
indicates that the intention was to direct the mind to the 
Incarnation. 

Mediaeval thinkers were accustomed to regard mankind 
as forming a mystical Body which existed for some purpose 
or end, and which was directed towards it by some vivifying 
principle. The purpose or end of mankind was reunion 
with the Creator, and the vivifying principle was Christ, 
who was conceived of as the Head of the mystical Body 
composed of mankind as a whole. The sculpture of this 
third pier was intended to explain this vivifying principle 
in action, and to show how it affects the life of each indi- 
vidual man. The sculpture springs from the sleeping form 



296 ORVIETO 

of Abraham (No. 42), and it records the fulfilment of the 
promise made to him : " In thee shall all the families of the 
earth be blessed" (Gen. xii. 3). 

The tree which branches out from this root has in its 
main stem the spiritual ancestry of Christ— the Prophets 
(No. 43), who foresaw His coming, and who predicted the 
salvation which He was to bring. 

It is the tree of the Gospel. It is the tree which through 
man's disobedience had become the tree of death, and has 
now become the tree of life. 

We begin at the lower left-hand corner with the Annun- 
ciation (No. 44). This scene marks the reconcilement 
of the world with God. The true light has descended 
from heaven. The hopes and desires of the Patriarchs and 
Prophets have been heard. Madonna bears a closed book, 
which the author of Isa. xxix. 11 says the learned men of 
Jerusalem would not read and the unlearned could not read. 
The prophecy usually associated with the Annunciation is 
that in Isa. vii. 14. 

No. 45, The Visitation, was connected with the pro- 
phecy of Obadiah i. 1. The scene portrayed was the 
occasion of the Magnificat. This song of rejoicing marked 
the contrast between the lowliness of Mary and the pride of 
our first parents. 

No. 46. The Nativity. The relative prophecy is that 
of Isa. ix. 6. The Ox and the Ass were by some con- 
sidered as types of the Jewish and Gentile nations who 
were united in the birth of the Son of Justice. 

No. 47. The Adoration of the Magi. This was re- 
garded as the call of the Gentiles. In these three Magi, all 
people worship the Author of the universe. Many pro- 
phecies were considered to be predictions of their visit, the 
most usual one being Ps. lxxii. 15. Gold was offered to the 
Child in His character as King. Myrrh was offered to His 
humanity and incense to His divinity. 

No. 48. The Presentation in the Temple prophesied 
in Mai. iii. 1. The old age of Simeon was a figure of the 
" old man," Simeon bearing the Child was the assumption of 



THE DUOMO 297 

the " new man." It was a figure of the passing from the 
shadow of the Law to the light of the Gospel. 

No. 49. The Flight into Egypt (see Ps. lv. 6-8 and 
Hos. xi. 1). The Child went down into Egypt so that grace 
might appear to the people among whom the slaying of the 
Lamb first foreshadowed the health-bringing sign of the 
Cross. 

No. 50, The Massacre of the Innocents, was predicted 
in Joel Hi. 19, and was a foreshadowing of the persecutions 
which the Church was destined to pass through. 

No. 51, Christ among the Doctors, is associated with 
Jer. viii. 9. This incident was considered as a warn- 
ing of how the darkness of unbelief not only prevents the 
light from penetrating to the understanding, but confuses 
the apprehension of the knowledge on which the unbeliever 
prides himself. 

No. 52. The Baptism. See 2 Kings v. 10. Christ was 
baptized not that He might be cleansed but so that He 
might sanctify water as the symbol of purification for man. 
The opening of the heavens, when the dove descended, was 
significant of the opening of the heavenly kingdom to the 
regenerate soul. 

No. 53. The Temptation. The relative prophecy is 
found in Nahum i. 11. In the history of Christ's temptation 
men saw the struggle which they themselves had to pass 
through. They thought of it as inevitable, they accepted it 
as a necessary element in the strengthening of character, 
they saw in it the opportunity of self-knowledge, they rejoiced 
in it, for they thought that victory brought the crown of life. 

No. 54. The Triumphal Entry, Zech. ix. 9. This scene 
signified the entry which Christ was to make into heaven, 
while the lament over Jerusalem foreshadowed the grief for 
the souls who would not hear the message of the Gospel. 

No. 55. The Betrayal, Ps. xli. 9. The choice made by 
Judas is a figure of the choice made by those who prefer 
material or worldly shadows to spiritual and celestial 
realities. 

No. 56. The Flagellation, Ps. xxxviii. 18. It was thought 



298 



ORVIETO 




Plan XIX.— Third Pier, Duomo, Orvieto 



THE DUO MO 299 

that in suffering- from the Crown of Thorns Christ cancelled 
the curse which had fallen on the earth for the sin of Adam. 
He who though blameless suffered scourging showed what 
sinful men ought to do in punishment of their evildoing. 

No. 57. The Crucifixion, Isa. liii. 5. This is an abstract 
of the usual representation of the scene with Madonna and 
St. John at the foot of the Cross and the inscription on the 
tree. The view of the early Church as to the significance of 
the Crucifixion is fitly summed up in the saying of Leo the 
Great, "For who could overcome the world's hatred, the 
blasts of temptation, the terror of persecutors, had not Christ 
in the name of all and for all said to the Father, 'Thy will 
be done'?" 

No. 58. The Maries at the Tomb, Ps. cxxxix. 18. Dante 
considers the three women as figures of the Epicureans, the 
Stoics, and the Peripatetics — that is, those who live in the 
active life. They search for their beatitude in the things of 
this present world of unrealities — that is, in the empty tomb. 
The angel who represents the divine element in man directs 
them to contemplation as the true beatitude. For though 
an imperfect state of blessedness is found in the exercise of 
the moral virtues of the active life beatitude is only perfected 
when the intellect contemplates God and ponders on Him in 
His purpose. 

No. 59. " Noli me tangere." Mary Magdalene was re- 
garded as a type of the Gentile Church, which did not believe, 
until after Christ had ascended into heaven, and hence it 
was supposed came the command. 

The sculptures of the third pier show us the fulfilment of 
the expectations of the old world, and present a forecast of 
the spiritual life which was to be the vivifying principle 
of the new. 

The Fourth Pier 

The fourth pier is sculptured with the concluding acts of 
the great drama of human life. Like the others, the design 
takes the form of a tree — it is the vine of the Lord. Its 
branches bear much fruit — a symbol of the souls who are 



Soo ORVIETO 

gathered to the communion of heaven. In the upper part 
of the pier we see " that most brilliant senate set in this 
most splendid senate-house." 

Plan XX. (p. 301). 

In the centre Christ is seated (No. 60) surrounded by the 
choirs of angels, to the right and left are the symbols of 
the Passion, and beyond are angels (No. 61) sounding the 
trumpets which summon to the Resurrection. On the left 
of Christ sit the Prophets with St. John the Baptist (No. 62), 
and on the right are the Apostles with Madonna (No. 62). 

At the bottom of the pier the dead are rising out of the 
tombs (No. 63). In the panel above this (No. 64) the Elect 
are assembling, and in the panel to the spectator's right is 
the company of the damned (No. 65). Below (in panel 
No. 66) is Hell. Between these lower sculptures and the 
upper part of the design where Christ is seated there are 
four panels (Nos. 67, 68, 69, 70) in which the blessed are 
shown approaching the throne ; they are guided and en- 
couraged by angels. In No. 69 there is an assembly of men, 
including St. Francis and a Pope, supposed to be Nicholas 
IV., while women are gathered in No. 70. 

This company of the saints is about to enjoy the vision of 
the Divine glory, regarded by mediaeval speculation as the 
true refreshment of the soul. 

For those who have found their goal in the transitory 
things of this life there is also an everlasting state. We see 
it in the panels No. 65 and 66, where the damned are 
gathered together to suffer the tortures of hell (No. 66). 
The artist has tried to realise the thought of St. Gregory the 
Great — how great is the confusion of the wicked when the 
Eternal Judge is discerned without, and sin is set in review 
before the eyes within. 

In its relation to the other piers this is the one in which 
the whole scheme comes to fruition. The Creation on the 
first pier is followed by the Fall. Then begins the work of 
restoration in the institution of labour and of the arts and 
sciences. The second pier shows the early development of 



THE DUO MO 



301 




Plan XX.— Fourth Pier, Duomo, Orvieto 



302 ORVIETO 

the spiritual life of the world, and how it advanced with the 
hope and expectation of a Messiah, as its principle of life. 
The third pier continues the history in the light of the fulfil- 
ment of all hopes and promises, and under the influence of 
the example of the life of Christ among men. The goal of 
all striving, the end of all effort, is reached on the fourth 
pier, where the blessed stand in the sight of God and enjoy 
the full communion of saints. 

The Choir 

[Ugolino di Prete Ilario was commissioned to paint the 
frescoes in the choir in 1370. He died in 1384, leaving the 
work unfinished. 

Giacomo di Bologna undertook to paint here in i49i,and 
Pintliricchio was employed in 1492. In 1496 he painted 
two of the doctors. Antonio da Viterbo (1497- 1499) is 
supposed to have painted the angel in the Annunciation and 
some other parts of the frescoes. The series is concerned 
with the coming of Christ and with the life of the Virgin. 

The fresco in the vault (a) where Christ appears sur- 
rounded by Seraphim and Cherubim strikes the dominant 
note. In the vault to the right (c) there is the manifestation 
of the Holy Spirit. Rays descend upon the earth as a 
symbol of the gifts of " Ineffable Charity." 

In the lunettes below the vault, and to the right and left 
(f and g, Plan XXI.) are the Prophets. On the side walls 
are the Apostles, Evangelists, and Doctors. The rest of the 
frescoes deal with the life of the Virgin Mary as the direct 
and intimate link between the human and the divine natures.] 

Plan XXI. (p. 306). 

We turn now to examine the details of the frescoes : — 
(a) On the vault over the entrance is Christ with Seraphim 

and Cherubim. 

(c) On the vault to the right of Christ, the Dove of the 

Holy Spirit spreads the rays of its power over all the people 

of the earth. 



THE DUOMO 303 

(d) On the vaidt to the left of Christ are the orders of 
angels. 

On the side walls of the choir to the left — No. 1, St. John 
the Evangelist ; No. 2, St. Matthew ; No. 3, St. Augustine ; 
No. 4, St. Jerome. On the right wall — No. 32, St. Mark ; 
No. 33, St. Gregory. The defaced parts of the wall at 
Nos. 30 and 31 no doubt had figures of St. Luke and St. 
Ambrose. 

The circular window (A) to the left has traces of the 
Apostles, each contributing one of the parts of the Creed. 
The paintings round the window to the right (B) have been 
destroyed. 

The spiritual forces of the old and the new dispen- 
sations are suggested in the lunettes (f) and (g) over the side 
walls. To the right, at (f), there are Abraham, Isaac, and 
Jacob ; Isaiah, Jeremiah, and St. John the Baptist. To the 
left, at (g), there are the Martyrs, SS. Laurence and Stephen; 
the Martyrs and Virgins, SS. Lucy and Agnes ; St. Martin, 
who parted his robe with the beggar ; and St. Sylvester and 
Constantine, the Pope and the Emperor who established 
Christianity in the West. The same contrast between the 
old and the new is kept up in the frescoes round the lancet 
window in the eastern wall. To the right are Adam, Noah, 
Abraham, Melchisedek, Joseph, Moses, and Job. To the 
left, SS. Ignatius, Vincentius, Nicholas, and SS. Mary 
Magdalene, Catherine, Antonina, and Agnes. 

We must next consider the pictures relating to the life of 
the Virgin. They begin with the story of her father and 
mother, Joachim and Anna. Joachim was of the city of 
Nazareth, and Anna was a Bethlehemite. They lived a 
simple and charitable life, giving a third of their goods to 
the temple, a third to the needy, and a third they kept 
for their own necessities. At the feast of the dedication 
Joachim's offering was refused, he being childless. In his 
discomfiture he went to dwell with his herdsmen, and 
thither an angel was sent in answer to his prayers. A 
daughter was promised to him, and he was bidden to go to 
the Golden Gate at Jerusalem, where he should meet his 



30 4 ORVIETO 

wife, Anna. To her likewise there was sent an angel, who 
gave the same message. Thus when they met they knew 
that the promise was confirmed to them. In like fashion as 
Sarah bare Isaac in her old age, and as Rebecca after a 
long time became the mother of Joseph, so to Anna there 
came, as the special gift of God, the child Mary. 

No. 5. Joachim is driven out from the Congregation. An 
angel appears to him. 

No. 6. An Angel appears to Anna. 

No. 7. Joachim and Anna meet at the Golden Gate. 

No. 8. Nativity of the Virgin. 

No. 9. When three years of age she was dedicated to the 
service of God, and was brought to the Temple. Until she 
was fourteen years old she lived within the precincts, being 
visited daily by angels. When she reached the proper age 
she refused to leave the Temple and to be given in marriage. 
The High Priest, therefore, by command of a voice from 
the ark, called together the men of the house of David, and 
when their rods were laid on the altar a dove rested on the 
one belonging to Joseph, and he was betrothed to Mary 
(No. 10). 

No. 11. The Annunciation. The willing submission of 
Mary to the message of the angel was an evidence of her 
deep humility, as opposed to the sin of pride {Purg. x. 40). 

No. 12. The Salutation. The haste with which Mary set 
out to visit Elizabeth was used as an example against the 
sloth which benumbs spiritual life (see Purg. xviii. 102). 
Her love for Elizabeth and her readiness to serve were 
cited by S. Bonaventura as evidence of that charity which 
prompts man to love his neighbour. 

No. 13. The chastity of Mary is revealed to Joseph in a 
vision. In Purg. xxv. 128 she appears to the souls who are 
being purified as the symbol of this virtue. 

No. 14, Joseph takes Mary to his own house. 

No. 15. The Nativity of Christ. The lowly circumstance 
of the birth of the Child is set before the Avaricious in 
Purg. xx. 19 as an example. 

No. 16. Adoration of the Shepherds. No. 17. The Cir- 



THE DUO MO 305 

cumcision. No. 18. The Adoration of the Magi. No. 19. 
The Presentation in the Temple. No. 20. The Flight into 
Egypt. 

No. 21. Defaced. 

No. 22. The Child with the Doctors in the Temple. 

No. 23. Joseph and Mary miss the Child. 

No. 24. They find Him in the Temple. 

No. 25. They chide Him. The meekness of Mary's re- 
proof is used as an example to those who are being cleansed 
from the sin of Anger in Purg. xv. 83. 

The frescoes from Nos. 15 to 25 (Plan XXI.) represent the 
life of the Virgin in its immediate relationship to that of the 
Child. They also suggest how her life was regarded as an 
example of the virtues by which a man's nature is perfected. 

The history is taken up again in 

No. 26 (Plan XXI.). An angel announces that the soul of 
Mary will be taken from her body on the third day. 

No. 27. The Apostles, who were miraculously called from 
where they were preaching, kneel round the bed. The 
night was spent in holy communion, and in the morning the 
soul was parted from the body and was carried up in the 
arms of Christ. 

No. 28. The body of the Virgin was laid in a sepulchre, 
and there it remained for three days. 

No. 29. On the third day the body of the Virgin was 
raised from the tomb. 

(e, Plan XXI.) In the lunette over the window is the 
Ascension of the Virgin. 

(b.) The Coronation of the Virgin. This consummation 
was regarded as the fulfilment of the saying in Rev. iii. 21, 
" To him that overcometh will I grant to sit with Me on My 
throne." It was a pledge of that glory which is to be the 
lot of all faithful souls. 

These frescoes vary in merit. Christ receiving Madonna 
in the scene of the Coronation, the figure of the Virgin in the 
Sposalizio, Christ among the Doctors, and the Child found by 
His parents are all fair examples of an art that does not take 
a first place. On the other hand, the expulsion of Joachim 

U 



306 



ORVIETO 



and the return of Joseph and Mary to their house are coarse 
and unsatisfactory. If, however, the paintings be judged as 




Plan XXI.— Choir of the Duomo, Orvieto 



a whole and from some little distance, it will be seen that 
the clear shadowless colour and the simple dignity of the 
forms yield a most harmonious result. This naif art, un- 



THE DUO MO 307 

troubled with the problems that beset the men of the Renais- 
sance, relies for its charm on the simplicity and directness 
of its means. It finds a fit object in the simple story of 
Madonna, in which S. Bonaventura saw reflected, as in a 
mirror, all that makes for goodness and truth. 



To the right of the entrance to the choir is the Cappella 
de Magi, for which Sammicheli, who was Capo Maestro 
(1514-1521), furnished a design. When Clement VII. 
brought Sangallo to Orvieto after the sack of Rome, he also 
made a design. Both were submitted to the Pope, who 
decided in favour of that by Sammicheli. In 1535 Simone 
Mosca was employed, having for his assistants his son Fran- 
cesco, a youth of fifteen, and RafTaello da Montelupo. The 
bas-relief is due to them, and the work was finished in 1 546. 

To the left of the choir is a relief of the Visitation, 
designed by Simone Mosca in 1546. His son Francesco 
worked at it for a short time, and then left. He was recalled 
in 1550, and, with the help of Ippolito Scalza and others, 
the work was finished in 1554. 

Cappella della Madonna di S. Brizio 

[The chapel to the south of the church is known as the 
Cappella della Madonna di San Brizio from a miracle- 
working picture which is still over the altar. The building 
was begun in 1408. At the sides of the window in the end 
wall of the chapel are the figures of two bishops supposed 
to represent SS. Brizio and Costanzo. S. Brizio was bishop 
of Spoleto or Assisi in the first century, and St. Peter is 
said to have given him power to consecrate pastors in the 
churches he should visit. S. Costanzo was a bishop of 
Perugia ; he was martyred in the second century. In 1447 
the painting of the chapel was begun by Fra Angelico, 
who painted the Christ in the vault over the high altar, 
and the group of prophets in the vault to the right ; he is 
also said to have drawn the design for the group of martyrs. 



3 o8 ORVIETO 

After Fra Angelico was called away nothing was done for 
many years. Negotiations with Perugino fortunately led to 
no result. It was in 1499 that Luca Signorelli was em- 
ployed to finish the vaults of the roof, and in 1 500 he was 
commissioned to paint the walls. The work was still going 
on in the year 1 504, and there was money due to him so late 
as 1509. 

Luca Signorelli was a citizen of Cortona, born there 
about 1 44 1. He took an active part in the government 
of the town, and Vasari says that he was " a man of upright 
life, and sincere in all things. He lived splendidly, and 
had pleasure in clothing himself handsomely." He survived 
both Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael, dying, as it is be- 
lieved, in 1523. He was a pupil of Piero della Francesca, 
and it is supposed that he also came under the influence 
of Antonio Pollaiuolo, a Florentine, who was trained as a 
goldsmith. It is true of nearly all the great Italian masters 
that they excelled in fresco, but of none is it more true 
than of Signorelli. Many of his altar-pieces painted on 
panel are in existence, but none of them reveal to us the 
intellectual quality and the imaginative power which is 
found in the frescoes at Orvieto. Signorelli is not a great 
colourist ; he has no suave Umbrian sentiment, nor does 
he see the spacious distances of Perugino. He realises 
himself fully only in terms of human life. He gains ex- 
pression for the deepest and most far-reaching relations 
of existence in the human form. No monument of the time 
is so thoroughly characteristic of the finer developments of 
the Renaissance, and no other monument of the period (with 
the possible exception of the Sistine Chapel) gives such a 
sense of power and strength. 

The note of the scheme in this chapel is Christ in 
Judgment. 

This central figure is preceded by a history of mankind 
arranged round the great poets of antiquity — Dante being 
included. These pictures are followed by the signs of the 
coming judgment, including the reign of Antichrist, and 
the resurrection from the dead. Then we have the judg- 



THE DUOMO 309 

ment, and finally the everlasting life of beatitude or punish- 
ment.] 

The visitor is advised to begin by studying the pictures 
in the following order : — 

1 (Plan XXII.). The pictures in small medallions grouped 
round the ancient poets and Dante, distinguished on the 
plan by letters from B to P2. 

2. The signs of coming judgments. Confusion (i., Plan 
XXIII.). The reign of Antichrist (ii., Plan XXII.). The 
destruction by fire (iii., Plan XXIII.). 

3. The Resurrection of the Dead (iv., Plan XXII.). 

4. Christ in Judgment (v., Plan XXII.), attended by the 
spiritual forces of the Jewish and Christian dispensations, 
Patriarchs (vii., Plan XXII.), Prophets (viii., Plan XXII.), 
Apostles (ix., Plan XXII.), Doctors (x., Plan XXII.), Martyrs 
(xi., Plan XXII.), Virgins (xii., Plan XXII.). 

5. The wicked carried off by Devils (xiii., Plan XXII.), 
and tormented in Hell (xiv., Plan XXII.). 

6. The blessed crowned by Angels (xv., Plan XXII.) and 
led up to Heaven (xvi., Plan XXII.). 

We begin with the pictures grouped round the ancient 
poets. No names are given to the poets, but the nature of 
the paintings, and the scene in Inferno iv. 89-90, where Dante 
describes his meeting with the sages, make it probable that 
they are Homer, Virgil, Ovid, Horace, Lucan, and Dante. 

In addition to these there are two others — one perhaps 
may be Empedocles, the other is destroyed. 

On entering the chapel, Empedocles, Homer, Dante, and 
Virgil are to the left, Lucan, Horace, and Ovid being on the 
right. Round each of these, as central figures, there are 
small panels, generally dealing with some scene in their 
writings more or less illustrative of the large frescoes above. 
In the case of Virgil there is an exception, the small illustra- 
tions are not taken from his own poems, but from scenes in 
Purgatory where Virgil was acting as Dante's guide or 
companion. 

To the left, on the entrance wall, there is a painting which 
has been supposed to represent Empedocles (P2, Plan XXIII.) 



310 ORVIETO 

He looks up at the scene of destruction and dissolution 
above him. Some have thought that the Philosopher sees 
in this a realisation of his theory of the moving forces of 
Love and Hate. When Hate becomes active, the ordinary 
bond uniting nature is dissolved. In Infer?io xii. 44, Dante 
attributes to Empedocles the idea that the alternating forces 
of Love and Hate cause the world " oftentimes to be con- 
verted into chaos." 

Plan XXII. (p. 315). 

The first poet on the side wall to the left is Homer. 
Round him are three small pictures (B, C, and D). They 
have been supposed to represent scenes from Iliad, xviii. 
The shield of Achilles is made by Hephaistos, and on it 
there is figured a judgment scene supposed to be that painted 
at (D.) It may be a pendant to the tragedy enacted in 
the picture (C). The figure at (B) has been identified as that 
of Achilles arousing himself to prepare for the rescue of the 
body of Patroklos. These attributions are not convincing. 

Round the figure of Dante there are four scenes from 
Purgatory. 

(F.) Cato meets Virgil and Dante on the shore of the island 
of Purgatory. Virgil, when challenged by Cato, says they 
are there, in virtue of the prayers of a lady, who descended 
from heaven. He declares that he was sent as guide, so that 
Dante might reach salvation by experience of guilt in hell, 
and now they go to see the souls who are being purified 
{Purg. i. 43-84)- 

(G.) In the foreground Virgil points out to Dante the boat 
bringing souls to the island of Purgatory. It is impelled by 
an Angel of God, whose light is so brilliant that Dante 
shades his eyes {Purg. ii. 39). In the centre of the picture 
Dante obeys the command of Virgil {Purg. ii. 28) to bend 
his knees in the presence of the Angel, who has just guided 
the boat-load of souls to the shore. In the background is 
the meeting between Casella and Dante {Purg. ii. 76-1 11), 
ending in the indignant protest of Cato against the halt 
which the souls make on their w^ay to the mount of cleansing. 



THE DUO MO 3 u 

(H.) Virgil asks the way upwards from the souls they 
meet. Dante meets King Manfred {Purg. iii. 113), who was 
killed at the battle of Beneventum (1266). The king sends 
a message to his daughter Constance to comfort her. He 
confesses that his sins were horrible, but Infinite Goodness 
has arms spread so wide, that all who return may be gathered 
within them. 

(I.) Virgil and Dante begin to climb. They mount on broken 
rock, and need both hands and feet {Purg. iv. 33). At the top 
of the narrow way they sit down to rest. Dante wonders why 
the sun strikes them on the left (they are in the southern 
hemisphere) {Purg. iv. 57). In the background they find 
Belacqua sitting in the shadow of the rock {Purg. vi. 104), 
more negligent than even if idleness were his sister {Purg. 
iv. 110-112). 

The next of the great men is Virgil ; he is surrounded by 
scenes from the Purgatory of Dante. 

(K.) Virgil reproves Dante for halting to listen to the souls, 
who are curious and wonder to see a form that casts a 
shadow {Purg. v. 1-18). A number of souls sing the " Mise- 
rere" {Purg. v. 24). Again the souls marvel at the shadow 
which is cast by Dante. They send two messengers to in- 
quire of the condition of the visitors {Purg. vi. 29-30). 

(L.) The souls gather round Dante. Among the crowd 
are Benincasa of Arezzo, slain by the brother of one who 
had suffered while Benincasa was Podesta of Siena ; Cione, 
of the family of the Tarlati, drowned at the battle of, 
Campaldino ; Federigo Novello, a Pisan ; and Pier della 
Broccia, chamberlain of Philip III. of France. These all 
desire that prayer may be made, so that their time of purifi- 
cation on the mount shall come quickly {Purg. vi. 1-28). 
In the background Sordello embraces the knees of Virgil 
when the latter declares himself to be a Mantuan. Virgil 
bends over him and returns the salutation. 

(M.) Sordello again embraces Virgil's knees {Purg. vii. 1 5), 
and the poet says that he has lost the light of the Sun, not 
for doing, but for not doing. In the centre of the picture 
Sordello explains that the darkness of night prevents any 



312 ORVIETO 

one from climbing the mountain. He leads them to a 
point where they can see the souls of Rodolph the Emperor 
and other rulers, who had allowed too great a weight to the 
things of this world. The kings sing the " Salve Regina " 
(Purg. vii. 67-136). 

(N.) Virgil, Dante, and Sordello hear the souls of the 
rulers sing " Te lucis ante" {Purg. viii. 13). Two angels 
with flaming swords guard the valley against the serpent 
(Purg. viii. 39 and viii. 98). In the background Dante 
talks with Nino Visconti of Pisa (Purg. viii. 53) and Conrad 
Malaspini (Purg. viii. 118). 

The series of small panels dealing with the purification of 
souls is continued on part of the end wall of the chapel. 

(O.) Dante, having fallen asleep (Purg. ix. 10), awakens to 
find himself at the gate of Purgatory (Purg. ix. 39). While 
asleep, Dante has seen a vision of an eagle, who bears him 
aloft (Purg. ix. 29-30), and Virgil explains that Lucia has 
appeared to him and borne Dante upwards to where he 
now is (Purg. ix. 61). To the left of the picture Dante kneels 
before the angel, who sits at the gate (Purg. ix. 82). 

(P.) Virgil and Dante enter the first circle on the moun- 
tain of Purgatory through a cleft in the rock (Purg. x. 7). 
On the sides of the path they see sculptured three examples 
of humility, viz., the Annunciation (Purg. x. 40), David danc- 
ing before the Ark (P?(rg x. 65), and Trajan, who did justice 
to the poor widow (Purg. x. 74). At the lower right-hand 
corner they see the souls of the Proud being purged, who 
bear heavy weights, which bow them toward the earth. 

(Q.) Virgil and Dante meet three souls who are being 
purged from Pride : Guglielmo Aldobrandeschi (Purg. xi. 
59), Oderigi of Gubbio (Purg. xi. 79), and Provenzano Sal- 
viani (Purg. xi. 121). These three souls are supposed to 
represent the arrogance of the patrician (Aldobrandeschi), 
the vainglory of the artist (Oderigi), and the ambition of the 
politician (Salviani). 

This ends the series of small panels dealing with the puri- 
fication of the human soul. We need not be surprised that 
the only specific sin dealt with is that of Pride, as it was held 



THE DUO MO 313 

to be the root of all evil. The pictures dealing with these 
scenes of preparation for the enjoyment of heaven are under 
the large frescoes, in which are gathered the saints who 
receive their crowns and are helped on their way heaven- 
wards by the angels. 

(R.) A subject of uncertain significance. 

(S.) With the help of Cupid, Venus causes Dido to become 
enamoured of ^Eneas. 

(T.) Herakles is forced to cross a stream with his wife 
Deianeira. Nessus offers to bear her across. The Centaur 
tries to carry her off instead, and is shot by Herakles. 
Nessus gives her a garment soaked in his blood as a charm 
against the infidelity of her husband. Deianeira becoming 
jealous sends Herakles a robe on which there is some of the 
blood. It poisons the hero, who dies on a funeral pyre. 
He is carried to Olympos and made immortal. 

(U.) This may represent the war between Herakles and 
Hippokoon. 

(V.) Devils torment the damned. 

(W.) Andromeda is exposed on a rock. Kepheus, her 
father, prays that Perseus will rescue her from the monster. 
Perseus slays the dragon, and claims Andromeda as his 
bride (see Metamorphoses iv.). 

(X.) Phineus, to whom Andromeda has been promised in 
marriage, breaks in upon the bridal banquet. Perseus when 
nearly overwhelmed by numbers shows the Gorgon's Head, 
and turns his enemies to stone {Metamorphoses v.). 

The small panels from T to X are upon the end wall of 
the chapel, and under the large fresco where the souls of the 
damned suffer. Passing to the side wall the two poets Ovid 
and Horace are under the fresco where the devils seize and 
carry off the souls of the damned. 

The following panels surround the picture of Ovid : — 

(Z.) Typhceus having dared to hope for an abode with the 
gods, is buried under the island of Sicily. The struggles of 
Typhceus cause earthquakes, and Pluto goes forth in his 
chariot to see if his kingdom of the underworld is in danger 
{Metamorphoses v.) 



3 i4 ORVIETO 

(A 2.) Diana and Pallas counsel Proserpina against Love. 
Venus moves Cupid to shoot his dart at Pluto so that he 
may be touched by love of Proserpina, lest she, like Diana 
and Pallas, should renounce the empire of Venus {Metamor- 
phoses v.). 

(B 2.) Proserpina is beloved by Pluto, and while she is 
gathering flowers he carries her off in his chariot {Metamor- 
phoses v.). 

(C 2.) Keres goes in search of her daughter. Cupid points 
the way {Metamorphoses v.). 

The following panels are painted round the picture of 
Horace. 

(E 2.) Eurydike having died of a snake bite, her husband, 
Orpheus, goes down into the underworld to recover her. 
He plays so sweetly on his lyre, that they who dwell there 
are charmed from their usual tasks. Pluto grants Eurydike 
to him on condition that he does not turn back to look at 
her. 

(F 2.) Orpheus breaks through the condition laid on him, 
he looks back. Three devils seize Eurydike and drag her 
down into the underworld. 

(G 2.) yEneas desires to visit the underworld to see his 
father. Charon objects to carry a living body across the 
river. The Sibyl shows the talisman of the Golden Bough, 
and they are ferried across the Stygian water {sEneidv'i. 
383-416). 

(H 2.) Herakles having chained up Kerberos, descends 
into the underworld and liberates Theseus, who is seen 
armed with sword and shield. 

This finishes the series under the fresco of the devils 
seizing the damned. The last of the poets is Lucan ; 
around his picture there are only two scenes. 

(K 2.) Probably a scene in the wars between Caesar and 
Pompey, described in Lucan's Pharsalia iv. 235. The two 
armies have fraternised, and Petreius raises the passions of 
the soldiers of Pompey so that strife may be renewed. 

(L 2.) After the battle of Pharsalia Pompey sails to Egypt, 
where he is slain by Achilles {/Pharsalia viii. 718). 



THE DUO MO 



3*5 



In the recess in the wall there are two small panels. 

(M 2.) Probably represents the martyrdom of Faustinus — 
perhaps the saint of this name who suffered in the time of 
Diocletian. 




Plan XXII. 
Capella della Madonna di S. Brizio, Duomo, Orvieto 



(R 2.) Probably represents the death of Pietro Parenzo, 
said to have been the first Podesta of Orvieto. He was 
sent to make peace in the city in n 99. He caused the 
towers of the nobles to be destroyed, and was treacher- 
ously murdered. His death was avenged by the Guelph 
party. 



316 ORVIETO 

The Signs of Judgment 

We have now to deal with the second division of the pro- 
cess, viz., the signs of coming judgment and the reign of 
Antichrist. 

(i., Plan XXIII.) The first sign of judgment is the con- 
fusion on earth, the signs and wonders in heaven, and 
the perplexity of the nations described in Luke xxi. 25 and 
in Rev. vi. 12. It is an account of what follows on the open- 
ing of the sixth seal, when the sun became black as sack- 
cloth of hair, and the moon became as blood, and the stars 
fell upon the earth. This fresco is on the entrance wall. 

(ii., Plan XXII.) The next sign is the reign of Antichrist. 
As we stand in the entrance, it is to our left, on the side wall. 
This is one of the finest frescoes in the series ; it gives a 
remarkable picture of the trials and temptations of this life. 
It is a study of the evil and confusion in the world, the 
hopeless discord and futility of human life when there is no 
perception of its true significance nor of the end towards 
which men should strive. The coming of Antichrist was a 
constant preoccupation of the mediaeval mind. Around this 
mysterious conception centred all the evil tendencies of 
the world. His coming was to cause the falling away of 
many from the true faith, his dominion was to be short- 
lived, only extending to three and a half years, as in the 
Apocalypse ; but it was to be bloody and disastrous beyond 
measure, and it was to precede the day of judgment. 

It is this concentration of all the powers of evil which 
Signorelli strives to paint. The drama begins with the fall 
of the evil spirit driven out from heaven by the sword of the 
angel. Antichrist descends, as does the Dove of the Holy 
Spirit, in rays from above. The coming of Antichrist, like 
his kingdom on earth, like the deeds by which he beguiles 
men and the means by which he imposes his rule over their 
souls, are in form the duplicates in evil of all the good that 
goes to the establishment of the kingdom of heaven. The 
descent of Antichrist brings evil and death, just as the 
descent of the Holy Spirit brings the gifts of healing. He 



THE DUOMO 317 

falls amidst a crowd of men and women. Some look up- 
wards as if for guidance, others realise the tragedy of their 
lives, ending in nothing but futile effort, evil passion, despair, 
and death. 

The coming of Antichrist is followed by the preaching of 
his kingdom. He stands on a pedestal, and, according to 
the promptings of the devil, he speaks to the crowd. There 
is no weak attempt to make him odious or diabolic ; he is 
one of the most magnificent conceptions of Renaissance art. 
He is grave, reverend, and thoughtful, full of power and 
force ; and yet with subtle art Signorelli makes it clear that 
the kingdom of darkness is overshadowing its king. At the 
foot of the pedestal lie rich vases full of coin, and other 
symbols of the voluptuous life by which Antichrist tempts 
the souls of men to destruction. 

The false prophet is making no merely rhetorical appeal 
to the feelings ; he knows the weaknesses of humanity, and 
he has a lure for all. He appeals to some by suasion and a 
false exposition of the Scriptures. We see the monks and 
learned men discuss his positions with the text before them ; 
they seem to be weighing the promises of the good things 
of this life against some faint recollection of a better and a 
higher ideal ; their doubts give them an evil conscience, a 
troubled expression, and an irresolute air. Where persua- 
sion fails Antichrist tempts by the working of miracles. In 
the background a sick person rises up in bed. The incident 
represents a cure of some disease or perhaps a revival from 
death ; women render thanks, and a group of men in wonder 
and amazement look on. 

Another group is tempted with gifts ; a servant of Anti- 
christ passes from one to another with an alert and acute 
air. A woman in the foreground unwillingly receives money 
from him ; she turns away as she holds out her hand, and 
her face tells us that she knows it is the wages of sin. 

Where all these temptations fail Antichrist falls back on 
violence and terror. When the appeal to the intellect, to 
the feelings, and to vicious longings has been resisted, he 
will break down resistance by persecution and bloodshed. 



3i8 ORVIETO 

In the foreground and to the left of the picture one of the 
emissaries of evil strangles a man with a business-like pre- 
cision characteristic of a Renaissance bravo ; near by lies a 
monk with his head split open, and others have fallen by 
knife or dagger. 

In the background is a magnificent palace, a fit abode for 
those who live in the pride of the eyes and the pride of life. 
About its porticoes move armed servants ; some of them drag 
a prisoner to punishment, and in front of the entrance Anti- 
christ stands watching over the martyrdom of Enoch and 
Elias, the two witnesses for God, in whose death the King- 
dom of Evil was finally established. 

The third sign of judgment is seen in the fresco on the 
entrance wall (iii., Plan XXIII.). It describes the vehement 
fire that comes before the judgment ; it is sent so that the 
old world may be purified, and that from it may come a new 
heaven and a new earth, unpolluted by discord. It also 
cleanses the sin of those who are alive at the second coining, 
and have not therefore climbed through the circles of Purga- 
tory. It is as a pillar of fire to give light to the saints, and 
to add to the torments of the damned. 



3. The Resurrection 

After the signs of judgment, there is the Resurrection 
(iv., Plan XXII.) on the side wall. Two angels sound the 
trumpets of the resurrection, each trumpet having the banner 
of the Cross. On the plain below many souls have already 
risen. They stand in groups, most of them gazing upwards 
in search of the power by which they have been awakened ; 
others are still in the act of freeing themselves from the 
grave with much effort. Sometimes it is a skeleton that 
forces its way upwards, and to the right they stand in a 
group. The skeletons are probably placed here in accord- 
ance with the legend that one of the tokens of the coming- 
judgment is that the bones of dead men shall issue out of 
their graves. 

One group of souls stand-in loving recollection of the 



THE DUOMO 319 

tender affection they enjoyed on earth. They have a 
melancholy air, for they do not yet realise that now theirs 
is the life everlasting. There is not a single example of 
theatrical pose, of weak or exaggerated feeling, or of forced 
action. It is a remarkable realisation, that stamps itself 
indelibly on the mind. 

4. The Judgment 

Christ in judgment is depicted on the roof of the chapel 
(v., Plan XXII.). He raises His right hand, and with His 
left He holds the globe of the universe. Outside the aureole 
of light which surrounds Him, are choirs of angels. This 
fresco is for the most part by Fra Angelico. In the other 
divisions of the vaulting of the roof are gathered the hier- 
archies of the old and new dispensations. 

(vii., Plan XXII.) The Patriarchs were watchers for the 
coming of Christ. In the innocency of Abel, in the hope of 
Noah, in the obedience of Abraham, in the meekness of 
Moses, they taught the mysteries of the spiritual life. They 
were each as stars giving light to their own time, until Christ, 
the true morning star, brought the fulness of light to all men. 
The group of Patriarchs is the work of Signorelli. 

(viii., Plan XXII.) The Prophets, who foresaw and fore- 
told the coming of Christ. St. John the Baptist sits nearest 
to the Saviour, and behind him is King David. This group is 
by Fra Angelico ; the remaining divisions of the vault were 
painted by Signorelli. 

(ix., Plan XXII.) In the first harvest the prophets had 
laboured, and in the second their place was taken by the 
Apostles. Madonna kneels nearest to Christ. 

(x., Plan XXII.) After the Apostles there came Martyrs, 
and when the Martyrs were taken, there followed the 
Doctors of the Church (xi., Plan XXII.). It was through 
their preaching and teaching that the brightness of the light 
of the Gospel dispelled the dark shadows of ignorance. The 
Choir of Virgins (xii., Plans XXII. and XXIII.) has for its 
central figure St. Mary Magdalene. Many of them bear 



32o OR VIETO 

palms of martyrdom. They move the spirits of men so that 
they may fight the good fight and win the Crown of Life. 

Thus we are taught how the goodly fellowship of the 
Prophets, the glorious company of the Apostles, the noble 
army of Martyrs, and Holy Church throughout the entire 
world acknowledge the infinite majesty of the glory of 
Christ 

5. The Fate of the Wicked 

On the side wall to the right (xiii., Plan XXII.) there is the 
scene in which the devils seize the damned and hurry them 
off to their allotted place. This is the least convincing of the 
four large frescoes, and yet no artist has ever more nearly 
conveyed in its terrible simplicity the vision which Dante 
calls up in Inferno iii. 16-18 : "We are come to the place 
where I told thee thou shouldst see the wretched people 
who have lost the good of the Intellect." 

Signorelli has chosen the scene which occurs so often over 
the great doorways in thirteenth-century Gothic cathedrals. 
At Notre Dame, in Paris, the wicked are gathered in a chain 
and drawn hellwards in a mass. Here, at Orvieto, it is an 
individual struggle. Each devil seizes his victim, binds him, 
or clutches him in his arms and carries him off. Some fly 
away with their prey, and three armour-clad angels stand on 
guard, lest any of the lost souls should escape toward the 
way of the blessed. The devils do their work too well for 
that, and the three are impassive onlookers, watching the 
struggle. 

The devils gain in horror from their humanity. Some 
have wings, reminding us that they are fallen angels, others 
have horns, but there is no intention to dwell on such things, 
and there is no desire to gain effect by grotesque incident. 
It is essentially an intellectual hell, in which the terror is 
greater, inasmuch as man suffers in his highest faculties and 
by means of devils who are mainly differentiated from him- 
self by calculated hate. 

The fate of the wicked is continued on the right-hand side ot 
the window (xiv., Plan XXII.). The design follows generally 



THE DUO MO 321 

the vision which Dante describes in the third canto of 
Inferno. 

The group to the right of the picture await the coming of 
Charon's boat. His eyes are like glowing coal ; he collects 
the sinners and smites with his oar whoever lingers. " As 
the leaves of autumn fall off one after the other ... so one 
by one the evil seed of Adam cast themselves from that 
shore . . . and ere they have landed on the other shore 
again a fresh crowd collects on this." In the background of 
the picture there is the " crew of caitiffs," dreary souls who 
lived without blame and without praise. " Their blind life is 
so mean that they are envious of every other lot." Their 
aimless existence on earth finds its counterpart on the con- 
fines of hell. They follow an ensign that ever moves quickly 
and yet leads nowhere. 

6. The Lot of the Blessed 

On the left hand (xv., Plan XXII.) is the fresco describing 
the Communion of Saints in Paradise. The blessed are 
looking upwards, they have seen the wicked carried off to 
everlasting torment, and their faces still bear the signs of 
the stress of this world. The terror from which they have 
escaped weighs on their souls, they do not realise the bliss 
they are about to enjoy. And yet in the heaven above 
them all is peace. The nine choirs of angels join in 
unending harmonies. Two angels in the centre shed 
flowers upon the blessed, while others place crowns of 
victory upon their heads. In spite of all this joy there is 
not a smile on a single face, human or angelic. 

It is a paradise of men and women who have passed 
through lives full of such experiences as make them grave 
even in the divine presence-chamber. Here there are no 
child-like monks embraced by child-like angels as in the 
Paradise of Fra Angelico. These are beings of a sterner 
mould, and they are still in the heaven from which the 
shadow of earth has not wholly passed. The waters of 
Lethe have not completely washed away the memory and 
the bitterness of worldly discords. 

X 



322 ORVIETO 

It is as though these artists of the Renaissance had cast 
away medievalism without having found a new anchorage. 




Oi 







ill 







© 



lb»\ 



Plan XXIII.— Cappella della Madonna di S. 
Brizio, Duomo, Orvieto 

The mournful gaze of Botticelli, the sceptical smile of 
Leonardo, the passionate unrest of Michel Angelo, and 
the shadow over Signorelli's Paradise show that none of 
these men had found a resolution of the problems they had 



THE DUO MO 323 

to face. At first sight the crowd of naked forms and the 
intimate realisation of their anatomy seems to clash with 
a conception of the ideal ; indeed, this picture has been 
regarded by some mainly as a study of the nude, and 
interesting as an example that may have inspired Michel 
Angelo. 

It will fall more truly into its proper place, if we regard 
these grandly muscular forms, standing so firmly on their 
feet and facing us with such stern and grave purpose, as 
symbols of that fortitude, of that strength and fixity of will, 
and of that reverend regard for the relationships of life upon 
which character is based. 

This company of the blessed assert the dignity of human 
nature alike in its physical and intellectual development. It 
is a protest against the mediaeval conception which regarded 
the body as the prison-house of the soul, and this world 
merely as a place of preparation for the next. 

If we compare a mediaeval rendering of Paradise, such as 
that of Orcagna, with this Renaissance conception, we find 
in the former that each saint has his or her worldly rank in 
the spiritual hierarchy carefully recorded ; here the indi- 
vidual does not stand on the quality of distinctions made 
in this world. In the Paradise of Signorelli men and women 
appear as such, and not as Bishops or Abbesses or Martyrs 
or Virgins. We do not know who has borne the burden and 
heat of the day, or who has worked but one hour. Here 
they are all equal, the quality of humanity is enough. 

The glory of Paradise is consummated on the wall to the 
left of the window (xvi., Plan XXII.). Angels are making 
music, while others fly downwards to help and encourage 
the blessed souls on their way to the presence of God. 

The Cappella del Corporale 

The Cappella del Corporale contains the reliquary, in 
which is preserved the visible signs of the Miracle of Bol- 
sena. The Miracle was worked in the Church of Sta. Cris- 
tina at Bolsena. In 1263, a German priest, who was troubled 



324 ORVIETO 

with doubt about the Real Presence, made a pilgrimage to 
Rome, hoping to find peace of mind. He visited various 
sanctuaries by the way, and it thus happened that he came 
to celebrate Mass at this place. As he broke the bread the 
wafer was turned into flesh, and blood dropped upon the 
cloth used in the office. Upon it there also appeared the 
image of the Saviour. At that time Pope Urban IV. was 
at Orvieto, and thither the priest went to tell what had be- 
fallen. The Bishop of Orvieto was sent to verify the facts, 
and afterwards was ordered by the Pope to return to Bol- 
sena and bring the relics to Orvieto. The Pope went out 
in procession to the bridge of Rio Chiaro to meet the return- 
ing bishop ; children spread olive branches and flowers 
by the way, and all returned to the city with joy and 
gladness. 

The Miracle happened at an opportune time. In the 
year 1208 the blessed Giuliana, a nun at Liege, had a 
vision of an incomplete circle of light ; it was revealed to 
her that the bright part represented the festivals held in 
honour of other mysteries, while the dark part signified 
that there was lacking a festival in honour of the Holy 
Sacrament. The institution of such a festival was attempted 
for a time at Liege, but the Pope hesitated to make it 
general throughout the Church, for he feared to make a 
liturgical innovation without some proof from heaven. The 
divine sanction was found in the Miracle of Bolsena, and 
by a Bull of the nth August 1264, the Pope ordered the 
celebration of a festival throughout the Catholic world. 
Thomas Aquinas was ordered to compose an office and 
a Mass for the celebration which was ordained for the 
glory of the Holy Sacrament, and the confounding of 
heretics. 

In the middle of the thirteenth century the Manichean 
heresy was rife, and besides maintaining the principle of 
dualism, many of the heretical sects were inclined to deny 
the Real Presence. The Miracle of Bolsena came, there- 
fore, as a most welcome means of strengthening the position 
of the Church against her enemies. 



THE DUO MO 325 

We now turn to the frescoes of the Chapel of the 
Corporale. They were painted originally between the 
years 1357 and 1364 by Ugolino di Prete Hario and his 
assistants. 

The frescoes on the side walls nearest to the reliquary 
have been repainted, while those on the walls nearest to 
the nave are almost destroyed. The entire series in the 
chapel, both on the walls and the roof, have a Eucharistic 
significance. 

Plan XXIV. (p. 328). 

We begin with the paintings on the roof over the reliquary, 
(a.) Melchisedek offers bread and wine to Abraham. The 
legend runs," Melchisedek, King of Salem, offered to Abraham 
bread and wine, for he was a priest of the Most High God." 
In the lunette beneath, St. Jerome explains that Melchisedek 
is to be interpreted as King of Justice and King of Peace ; 
he signifies Christ, King of all priests. 

(b.) Abraham welcomes the three Angels. He sees three 
but adores only one. He brings water and washes their 
feet, and sets food before them. St. Basil, in the lunette 
below, says : " He adored the Saviour, showing His coming, 
and he foresaw the future mystery of the Sacrament." 

(c.) Moses and the Israelites gather Manna. The legend 
is, "He gave them bread from heaven having all virtue 
in it." 

(d.) Elijah is aroused by the Angel, he kneels and adores, 
and then eats. He climbs Mount Horeb. In the strength 
of this food he went forty days and forty nights up to the 
Mount of God. In the lunette, St. Gregory says, " The Angel 
which fed Elijah, that is, the Angel of ' Great Council,' is 
Christ, by whose help we exist both in our bodily and 
spiritual nature." 

The four divisions of the roof nearest to the nave of the 
church have the following representations : — 

(e„) In the upper part Christ stands with the seven candle- 
sticks about Him ; over them is the Host. Below, Christ 
appears as the rider on the white horse, crowned and 



326 ORVIETO 

armed. He shoots an arrow at the devil. The legend says, 
" A crown is given to Thee, and as a conqueror, Thou shalt 
go forth to conquer." 

In the lunette below, Christ stands among His disciples 
holding the Host, and declares that he who eats shall have 
life eternal. 

(f. ) A figure kneels in confession, and St. Paul, pointing 
to the chalice and the wafer on the altar, warns mankind 
that whosoever eats and drinks unworthily eats and drinks 
to his own damnation. 

(g.) Christ in a glory of angels and holding the chalice 
and wafer appears to St. Augustine, who hears a voice from 
heaven. It is shown to him that as the bodily man grows 
by eating food, so the spiritual man must feed on Christ. 
In the lunette below, there is a representation of the Last 
Supper. Christ gives the wafer to Peter and says, " Take, 
eat, this is my body." 

(h.) St. Thomas Aquinas kneels at an altar, to prepare 
himself for writing the new office for the festival of the 
" Corpus Domini." On the altar there is a book, on the 
pages of which is written, " I am the true food." Above the 
altar is a crucifix, and from it Christ speaks to St. Thomas : 
"Thou hast well written of Me, Thomas, therefore thou 
shalt receive the reward of thy labours." 

The picture in the lunette below is defaced. The scheme 
of this roof seems to be summed up in the saying, "By 
partaking of the body and blood of Christ we pass into 
that which we then take, and both in spirit and in body we 
carry everywhere Him, in whom and with whom we were 
dead and buried." 

We now turn to the narrative frescoes on the wall, be- 
ginning with those which give an account of the Miracle, 
on the right-hand side of the chapel. 

No. i. The Miracle of blood falling from the Host, in the 
Church of Sta. Cristina, at Bolsena. 

No. 2. The Priest comes to tell the Pope of the Miracle. 

No. 3. The Pope sends the Bishop of Orvieto to verify the 
Miracle. x 



THE DUOMO 327 

No. 4. The Bishop of Orvieto finds the Corporate spotted 
with blood. 

No. 5. The Pope at the head of the people and clergy 
meet the Bishop on his return. The Pope kneels as the 
Corporale is exposed. 

No. 6. The Corporale is shown to the people. 

No. 7. St. Thomas Aquinas presents the office for the 
celebration of Corpus Domini, which the Pope has ordered 
him to write. 

Passing to the frescoes on the left wall — 

Nos. 8, 9, and 10 represent how a fisherman put the Host 
into the mouth of a fish. Three years later he confesses 
what he has done. The priest and the fisherman recover 
the Host. 

No. 11. A hermit who disbelieves in the Real Presence is 
brought to the altar. As the priest raises the Host, it is 
changed into the likeness of a child. 

No. 12. St. Gregory, having consecrated the Host, presents 
it to an unbelieving woman, who by it receives faith in the 
Sacrament. 

Nos. 13, 14, 15. A Jewish child has received the communion 
along with a number of Christian children. The indignant 
father thrusts the child into a glass-blower's furnace. The 
mother calls her neighbours. They rescue the child, and 
put the father into the furnace in his place. 

Nos. 16, 17, 18. Hugh of St. Victor, when sick, is presented 
with the unconsecrated Host. He detects and refuses it. 
The consecrated Host is brought, and he sits up in bed and 
worships. In the next painting Hugh says, " Let the Son 
return to the Father, and my soul to its Saviour." In the 
fresco we see the Wafer passing upwards, and the Soul of 
the dead man, shining with a brilliant radiance, carried to 
heaven by angels. 

No. 19. A number of Christian prisoners have been 
taken by Mussulmans in battle. Among them is a chap- 
lain. The Saracen king demands to see what the chaplain 
can make out of bread, otherwise the prisoners will be 
slain. 



128 



ORVIETO 



No. 20. The chaplain celebrates Mass, and the Host is 
changed into a child. 




Plan XXIV.— Cappella del Corporale, 
Duomo, Orvieto 



/ 



The Christians kneel on one side of the altar, and the 
Saracens on the other. v 



THE DUO MO 329 

No. 21. The child stands on the altar bearing the Cross. 
The king is seated on his throne. Some of the soldiers 
kneel, and many conversions take place. 

No. 22. In a window opening to the right of the entrance, 
it is possible to see traces of the offerings made by Cain and 
Abel, and the sacrifice of Gideon. 

No. 23. To the left of the entrance, below the first lunette, 
there is a representation of the meal of the Passover. 

No. 24. On the underside of the arch, to the left of the 
entrance, three frescoes show how a heretic attempted to 
deceive a believer with a representation of a false Madonna 
and Child. The believer takes advice of St. Peter Martyr. 
The saint elevates the Host, and the Child falls from the 
knee of the false representation. 

The reliquary, in which is preserved the Corporale, was 
made by Ugolino di Maestro Vieri in 1337. It is adorned 
with eight representations of the story of the Miracle and 
seven scenes from the life of Christ. 

1. The Priest says Mass. 2. The Priest tells the Pope of 
the Miracle. 3. The Pope sends the Bishop to inquire. 
4. The Bishop verifies the Priest's account. 5. The Bishop 
returns with the Corporale. 6. The Pope comes out of 
Orvieto to meet him. 7. The Pope shows the Corporale to 
the people. 8. St. Thomas Aquinas presents a copy of the 
Office he has written for the festival. 9. The Entry into 
Jerusalem. 10. The Last Supper. 11. The Washing of the 
feet. 12. The Sermon to the Apostles after the Supper. 

Below these are representations of the Annunciation, the 
Nativity, and the Adoration of the Magi. At the four 
corners are figures of the four Evangelists. 

The Font 

Near the western door, which is most commonly used, 
there is a font of Renaissance workmanship. It is 
supported on a base carried by eight lions. The work 
was begun in 1390 by Luca di Giovanni of Siena and it 
was finished in 1407, while Sano di Matteo of Siena was 



33Q ORVIETO 

Capo Maestro. The font is of the traditional octagonal 
form. 

The most noteworthy thing is the sculpture on a small 
fillet which surrounds the basin. In addition to some 
ornamental work there are allegorical subjects not easy 
to explain. One subject shows a wolf suckling children, 
while another wolf carries off a lamb. It has been suggested 
that the one wolf is the true Pope who nourishes the Church, 
while the other is the Antipope who ravages the fold. 
There are besides symbols of the seven virtues. Faith is 
indicated by the Host and Chalice, next is Hope, and 
beyond there is a figure with a flaming censer expressive 
of Charity. Prudence, Justice, Temperance, and Fortitude 
are also personified. They appear here as the result of 
the purification and illumination wrought by the waters of 
baptism. 



Near the font on the wall of the aisle is a fresco by 
Gentile de Fabriano (1360, 70-1427, 28?). The picture 
has been much damaged ; it is still, however, a charming 
example of Umbrian sentiment. 

OTHER CHURCHES 

S. DOMENICO 

This building was begun on a small scale in 1233, but 
in 1245 the plan was changed by the Cardinal Anibaldo 
Anibaldeschi in favour of a more magnificent church with 
a large convent attached. The designs of the Cardinal 
were too ambitious. The vast structure remained in an 
incomplete state until the seventeenth century, when it was 
finished off on a smaller scale. 

St. Thomas Aquinas, who lived in Orvieto for a year, 
from 1263 to 1264, persuaded Urban IV. to consecrate this 
church. It is said that the learned doctor not only taught 
theology in the town, but wrot^, during the time of his visit, 



OTHER CHURCHES 331 

the Office of the Corpus Domini, the first book of the Catena 
Aurea> and his commentary upon the De Anima of Aristotle. 
An ancient wooden crucifix, and a chair in this church, 
are shown as having been used by St. Thomas. The chief 
object of interest is the monument erected by Arnolfo del 
Cambio (1232-1310) to Cardinal Guglielmo di Bray, who 
died in Orvieto in 1280. The tomb may be compared with 
the similar design by Giovanni Pisano for the monument 
to Benedict XI. in the Church of S. Domenico in Perugia. 

The design of the Cardinal's tomb is architecturally 
superior to the monument at Perugia. The lower part, 
ornamented with mosaic, is particularly successful. The 
recumbent figure, with severely simple drapery, is very fine 
in general outline. But the face of the Cardinal cannot 
compare with the magnificently dignified features of the 
dead Pope by Giovanni Pisano. 

The theme of the curtain-drawing angels was probably 
invented by Arnolfo, and used by him on this monument 
for the first time. These angels have no wings, and are 
clothed in dalmatics. They seem busily concerned with 
their duties, and are altogether less restrained and less 
beautiful than the angels of Giovanni at Perugia. Above 
the lying statue is a seated Madonna and Child on a throne 
richly ornamented with mosaics and twisted columns. On 
either side, under niches, are the figures of St. Dominic, and 
the kneeling Cardinal, presented to the Virgin by a Domini- 
can monk. 

The majestic figure of the Madonna recalls something 
of the imperial air of the Virgin by Niccolo Pisano on the 
pulpit at Pisa. 

A sepulchral chapel in the church was built by Michele 
Sammicheli for one of the Petrucci family of Siena, who died 
in Orvieto in 15 17. 



S. Andrea, in the Piazza Vittorio Emmanuele, is an ancient 
church built before the middle of the twelfth century, upon 



332 ORVIETO 

the site of a Roman temple dedicated to Juno. The church 
has no architectural features of interest, and is noteworthy 
chiefly from its associations with some of the most solemn 
events and deeds of the mediaeval Republic. On the Feast 
of the Assumption it was the custom for the conquered 
towns and castles annually to offer their tribute as a sign 
of submission to the Orvietans at the doorway of S. Andrea. 
Pietro Parenzo, the first Podesta, who was murdered in 
Orvieto, was canonised here. 

In 1281 Martin IV. received the papal tiara in this church, 
in the presence of Charles of Anjou. On a pier of the cross- 
ing, to the right, is a small pulpit richly inlaid with cosmati 
work. 



S. Francesco. This church, built upon the highest part 
of the city, dates from 1229. It was in this building that 
Boniface VIII. canonised St. Louis, King of France, in 
1297. The church was also the scene of the magnificent 
funeral of Prince Henry of England, murdered by Guy de 
Montfort in Viterbo in 1273. There were present on the 
occasion the English king, Edward I., and his queen, as 
well as Charles of Anjou and Pope Gregory X. 

Several members of the famous Monaldeschi family are 
buried in this church. 



S. Giovenale is probably the oldest Orvietan church, 
having been constructed in 1004 at the expense of the 
families of the Monaldeschi, Rinaldini, and the Counts of 
Marsciano. 

The building underwent radical modifications in the 
thirteenth century, and again in 1640, but some traces still 
remain of the Romanesque period. The high altar, for 
example, is formed of a marble slab covered with interlacing 
patterns of crosses and circles. On the pilasters at the 
corners are the figures of a c^ove, a griffin, a bishop, and 



OTHER CHURCHES 333 

the Archangel Michael. The date 11 70 may be seen on the 
side. The church also possesses an interesting ivory cas- 
ket of Romanesque workmanship, with the symbolical figures 
of a Lamb between a Peacock and a Pelican, signifying the 
Redeemer, who, by His sacrifice, bestowed the gift of ever- 
lasting beatitude upon man. Christ is symbolised by the 
Lamb, His sacrifice by the Pelican, and Immortality by the 
Peacock. 



The Monastery of SS. Severo and Martirio, known as 
La Badia, is about one and a half miles beyond the Porta 
Romana. It can be reached by carriage from the road, or on 
foot by pleasant paths through vine and olive gardens. The 
building was begun in the eighth century, and was en- 
larged and enriched at different times up to the fourteenth 
century. The ten-sided Campanile in the Romanesque 
style was added by the Countess Matilda, who died in 11 17. 
Some marble fragments, remains of the older construction, 
may be seen built into the walls of the Tower. The windows 
are round-arched and divided by a single column. 

The cloister has round-headed windows with Romanesque 
ornament, but the capitals of the columns are Gothic in 
character. The monastery was inhabited by Benedictine 
monks until 1221. It was then given by Honorius III. 
to the regular canons of the Premonstratensians. In 1423 
Martin V. bestowed it upon the Olivetans, who in turn were 
dispossessed by Eugenius IV. in 1442, and the rich mon- 
astery passed into the hands of Cardinal Barbo, the 
nephew of the Pope. 

The Well of St. Patrick (Pozzo di S. Patrizio), near 
to the fortress, is an ingenious and unusual construction 
built by the architect, San Gallo, in 1527. Clement VII. 
had fled to Orvieto for refuge after the sack of Rome by 
the Constable Bourbon ; and fearing that the water supply 
of the town would prove deficient in the case of a siege, 
he ordered the construction of this magnificent well. The 



334 ORVIETO 

shaft is about one hundred and eighty feet deep, and forty- 
six feet in diameter. There are two staircases, one for 
the ascent, and the other for the descent, wide enough for 
the passage of mules. The walls are pierced by seventy-two 
windows, and through these openings, one can see far down 
at the bottom a speck of water circled round by a green 
wall of delicate ferns. It is said that San Gallo took the 
idea of this stairway from Niccolo Pisano's designs for the 
Campanile at Pisa. Clement VII. died before the com- 
pletion of the structure, and his successor Paul III. gave 
the work to Simon Mosca, who transformed the balls of 
the Medici arms, which Clement had placed above the door, 
into the lilies of the Farnese house. 

The inscription on the upper building runs, QUOD 
NA TURA MUNIMENTO 1NVIDERA TEND USTRIA 
ADJECIT. " Industry supplies what nature is unwilling 
to bestow." 



SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 



GUBBIO 

GUBBIO is on a line of railway which connects Arezzo 
with Fossato, a station on the Foligno-Ancona line. 
The journey from Arezzo to Gubbio occupies from 
four and a half to five hours, and from Gubbio to Fossato 
there is about an hour's journey. This railway also serves 
Citta di Castello and Borgo San Sepolcro ; it passes through 
a beautiful country. Another way of reaching Gubbio, and 
one that is still more pleasant, is to drive from Perugia ; this 
takes about four hours. Passing out of Perugia by the 
Porta Augusta the road descends rapidly to the valley of 
the Tiber. The stream here is often a succession of shal- 
lows reflecting the willows on its banks, rather than the river 
that is familiar to us in Rome. It is crossed by a high 
bridge, and soon afterwards the road to Umbertide goes off 
to the left. The road to Gubbio lies over a range of hills 
bare of vegetation, and with but few inhabitants. Some 
sheep, tended by wild -looking men clothed in goatskins, 
find a little grazing during parts of the year, and here and 
there a bit of open woodland reminds the traveller of a 
Surrey common. The charm of the drive is in the distant 
views over the Umbrian valleys, with the chain of the Apen- 
nines forming a magnificent background. For the last mile 
or two the road crosses a broad valley leading to the foot of 
Monte Calvo. 

[Gubbio is built on the lower slopes of the hill. The 
circuit of the ancient walls is too large for the modern town, 
which clusters round two immense mediaeval buildings, 

335 



336 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

the Palazzo dei Consoli and the Palazzo del Municipio. 
Above these stand the ducal palace and the Duomo, and 
for a background there is the grey side of Monte Calvo. 

Gubbio was famous for its school of pottery, particularly 
in the early part of the sixteenth century, when Maestro 
Giorgio produced the ruby lustre which has made him 
famous. Hardly any of this ware is to be seen in the public 
collections of the town, but those who are interested in 
it will find many examples in the South Kensington 
Museum.] 

The two municipal buildings are raised on huge buttresses 
of masonry. They form striking examples of the style of 
architecture usually found in fourteenth- century buildings of 
this kind. They suggest the spacious and magnificent life 
of the Italian city republics. 

The Palazzo dei Consoli, on the right side of the Piazza 
della Signoria, has nothing to attract the traveller except its 
own architectural magnificence. 

It is in the Palazzo del Municipio that the life of the 
modern town is centred, and it is here that the collections 
belonging to the city are kept. This building contains a 
great hall in which there is a collection of paintings, furni- 
ture, &c. 

The entrance doors are of carved wood. The principal 
objects of interest are as follows : — 

Madonna and Child, a detached fresco of the school of 
Nelli. 

A Gonfalone, by Sinibaldo Ibi. On one side, " Mater 
Misericordia," on the other, S. Ubaldo. 

Sta. Chiara and St. Francis, by Timoteo Viti. 

Madonna and Child and St. John, a beautiful little picture 
by Fra Filippo Lippi. 

St. Vincent. School of Nelli. 

In a cabinet there is an authentic example of the famous 
Gubbio ware made by Maestro Giorgio. There are also 
other pieces by his son. 

Two ivory powder-horns have scenes from the Passion 
carved upon them. x 



GUBBIO 337 

Models of the statues of SS. Ubaldo, George, and Anthony, 
which were carried in the procession of the " Ceri." 

Diplomas are shown, granted by Frederick Barbarossa, 
1 163, Henry VI., 1191, Otto IV., 121 1, Frederick II., 1241- 
1244, and 1248, and by the Vicar of King Manfred, 1259. 

The furniture includes many fine chairs and cassoni. 
In the Sala del Gran Consiglio there are a number of 
portraits of persons who have been more or less connected 
with the town. Many of them are obviously unauthentic. 
Amongst others there are portraits of Oderigi, the painter, 
who died in 1299, of various members of the Carpegna 
family, of Julius II. (della Rovere), of Innocent X. (Pam- 
fili), and of Leo XII. 

The most curious objects in the collection belonging to 
Gubbio are the Eugubine tables. Seven of them are pre- 
served here. They are of bronze, and the inscriptions upon 
them are still a subject of speculation for scholars. Five of 
the tables are written in Etruscan letters, and two in Latin. 
The language, however, is neither Etruscan nor Latin. It 
is supposed to be an Umbrian dialect closely allied to Oscan 
and Latin. The date assigned is about two centuries before 
Christ, when the Umbrians, as a people, had no power, and 
when their numbers are said to have been greatly reduced. 
The writing is concerned with the ritual of a body of priests 
known as the Attidian Brethren. The tables were discovered 
in 1444. 

S. Agostino 

Just outside the Porta Romana is the Church of S. Agos- 
tino. • In the third chapel to the right in the nave of the 
church is a picture of Madonna and Child. At either side 
angels present a group of souls, a dove descends on Christ, 
and angels make music. The most interesting feature of 
the church is, however, the choir, where the story of St. 
Augustine's life has been painted. The pictures are attri- 
buted to Ottaviano Nelli, who is known to have worked 
between the years 1403 and 1444. He was the son of Mar- 
tino Nelli, a pupil of Guido Palmerucci, a painter of Gubbio, 

Y 



338 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

supposed to have flourished between 1280 and 1345. Pal- 
merucci is said to have been the pupil of Oderigi, who died 
in 1299, and who has become famous from the mention of 
his name by Dante. Ottaviano Nelli worked under the 
patronage of the Counts of Montefeltro, but it is said that 
only a single figure of St. Sebastian remains of all that he 
painted during a ten years' residence in Urbino. 
We turn now to consider the paintings in the choir. 

Plan XXV. (p. 339)- 

The frescoes on the roof, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, describe 
the training of St. Augustine. He himself has told us 
how he disliked the routine of the schools, and how he 
enjoyed the tale of Troy as a "most pleasant spectacle of 
vanity." He also describes how he was roused to a desire 
for wisdom by the reading of Cicero's " Hortensius," and hoAv 
by its influence his affections were changed and his mind 
turned towards God. In each of the frescoes in the vaults, 
besides the picture referring to some point in the youth of 
St. Augustine, there is a figure of an Evangelist. 

Leaving his native town of Tegaste, Augustine went 
to Carthage to continue his studies. He read the "Ten 
Predicaments" of Aristotle alone, and he studied all the 
books that he could get bearing on the liberal arts, and 
thus he became fitted to teach. From Carthage he went 
to Rome, and from Rome he was sent by the prefect 
Symmachus as a teacher of rhetoric to Milan. These 
journeys are painted in the frescoes Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8, 
and in the latter picture we see Augustine teaching. 

At Milan he came under the influence of St. Ambrose 
and Simplicianus ; the scene to the left of No. 9 probably 
represents Augustine taking counsel with the latter. To 
the right of the same picture the story is continued. While 
walking alone and being in much mental stress, he heard a 
voice saying, "Take up and read." Supposing it to be a 
voice from heaven he returned quickly to his friend Alypius, 
and seizing the book of the Apostles he opened it and 
read, "Not in rioting and Hrunkenness, not in strife and 



GUBBIO 339 

envying ; but put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make 




Plan XXV. 
Choir of S. Agostino, Gubbio 



not provision for the flesh to fulfil the lusts thereof." 



340 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

No. 10. The baptism of St. Augustine. He and his son 
were baptized by St. Ambrose. It is said that during the 
ceremony each one in answering the other made the verses 
of the " Te Deum laudamus." 

No. ii. Perhaps represents the setting out to return to 
Africa. 

No. 12. Death of Sta. Monica, his mother, at Ostia while 
they were on the way. 

No. 13. Lands in Africa. No. 14. On his return to Africa 
he went to Hippo, and against his will he was ordained a 
priest by Valerian the Bishop. 

No. 15. Valerian having resigned the Bishopric, Augustine 
was constrained to take the office. This fresco represents 
his Consecration. 

Nos. 16, 17, and 18. Probably represent some of the many 
controversies in which St. Augustine was engaged with 
Manicheans and others. 

No. 19. St. Augustine sees a vision of the Crucified Christ. 

No. 20. Death of St. Augustine. When the Vandals laid 
waste the country they besieged Hippo, and in the third 
month of the siege the Bishop fell ill and died. 

No. 21. Translation of the body to Pavia. 

No. 22. The miraculous deliverance of a prisoner. 

These frescoes were painted when Gentile da Fabriano 
was at work in various parts of Italy, and when Masolino 
and Masaccio were transforming Florentine art. But the 
painter at S. Agostino was no such craftsman as Gentile, 
and he had no comprehension of the subtle change which 
was being worked out by Masaccio. The paintings have 
been covered with plaster, and it would therefore be unfair 
to judge of the colour ; for the rest a certain love of realism 
only produces a rather childish art, wanting alike in force 
and dignity. 



Sta. Maria Nuova. Over one of the altars in this 
church is the fresco known a*$ "Madonna del Belvedere." 






GUBBIO 341 

In the centre sits Madonna with the Child on her knee, 
to the right is St. Anthony, to the left S. Emiliano ; the 
donors (Pinoli) are presented, one by an angel, the other 
by St. Anthony. Around Madonna the heavenly choir 
make sweet music. Over her head, God the Father in a 
glory of angels holds a crown. The colour is very har- 
monious, the robe is light blue, the under-garment is red 
and there is a thin veil of white ; all the drapery is flowered 
with gold. The background is a design in blue, each 
square being filled with an animal study in gilt. Behind 
Madonna two angels support a rich hanging. St. Anthony 
and the two donors are indeed the only undecorated 
elements in the picture. Sienese influence is strongly 
marked throughout. Madonna is a passive and unemotional 
woman ; the heavenly music and the heavenly glory which 
surrounds her awaken no response of any kind. The 
picture is too unsubstantial to be real ; it is too unimagina- 
tive to be ideal. The figures suggest no actual existence ; 
they are symbols treated with little attempt at relief. There 
is a pensive atmosphere of devotion, and a feeling tender 
rather than powerful. Besides all this the picture is a 
charming study of colour, which comes naturally to so 
many of the painters who lived in these wide upland 
valleys. Some one has said that this is the most beautiful 
of all Umbrian paintings, and when we stand before it, 
it hardly seems worth while to contradict such a saying. 
The picture has been attributed to Ottaviano Nelli, and 
the date assigned is 1403 or 1404. 



The Palazzo Ducale. In the year 1384 the people of 
Gubbio are said to have driven out the ruling family of the 
Gabrielli in order to welcome the sway of Antonio Count 
of Montefeltro. Whether this be an accurate statement of 
what happened or no, the town became part of the posses- 
sions of the family which. ruled as Counts of Montefeltro 
and Dukes of Urbino. In the fifteenth century Frederick 



342 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

Duke of Urbino began to build a palace in Gubbio, and the 
work was continued by his son Guidobaldo. In 1474 
Frederick received the English order of the Garter, and in 
1504 Guidobaldo was also made a Knight. He sent Bal- 
thasar de Castilione, the author of the " Cortegiano," to 
represent him at the installation, and it was to the palace 
at Gubbio that the envoy returned to give an account of 
his reception. The use of the Garter among the ornaments 
of the building recalls the dignity bestowed on the two 
Dukes. On the death of Guidobaldo, the Dukedom of 
Urbino passed into the family of the della Rovere. Their 
arms will be noticed on some of the monuments in the 
town. The building of the palace is falling into ruin, but 
the courtyard still shows how graceful and dignified were 
the palaces built by the great men of the Renaissance. 



The Duomo. Opposite to the entrance of the courtyard 
of the palace is the Duomo. Over the main door is a 
circular window with the Agnus Dei above it, and around 
it are the symbols of the four Evangelists, curious examples 
of forms half men, half animals. 

In the nave of the Duomo there is, in the first chapel 
to the left, Madonna and Child between SS. Ubaldo and 
Sebastian, by Sinibaldo Ibi (working 1528). In the third 
chapel, to the left, there is St. Mary Magdalene crowned by 
angels, by Timoteo Viti (1467-1523). In the tenth chapel, 
to the left, Eusebio di S. Giorgio (working 1492-1527) has 
painted a Nativity with shepherds in adoration and the 
Magi in the background. 

In a room off the sacristy there is preserved a fine 
vestment of Flemish work presented by Pope Marcellus 
II. in 1555. In the centre of the Cope is the Last Supper. 
The other scenes are the Agony in the Garden, the Kiss 
of Judas, Christ before Pilate, the Crowning with Thorns, 
the Flagellation, and the Bearing of the Cross. 



PA NIC ALE AND CITTA DELL A PI EVE 343 

PANICALE AND CITTA DELLA PIEVE 

The rise and the decline of the fifteenth century Umbrian 
school of painters may be seen in the gallery at Perugia. 
But it is otherwise with the Art of Perugino himself. The 
student, besides journeying through French museums, must 
visit many Italian churches which lie somewhat out of the 
beaten track, if he would estimate Perugino fairly. 

Panicale and Citta della Pieve have two remarkable 
examples of the master's work, and apart from the artistic 
satisfaction that may be gained, no one will regret the 
journey made to visit them. A pleasant method of reaching 
these towns is to drive from Perugia, following at first the 
line of railway to Terontola, and then turning aside along 
the southern shores of Lake Trasimeno. Panicale lies above 
the level of the lake, and during the long climb up to the 
town there are lovely views of the lake, with the Umbrian 
and Tuscan valleys and mountains as a background. 

Panicale is no more than a village if we regard its size ; 
but the towers and walls, the gateway through which we 
pass, the paved streets shadowed by high houses, the piazza, 
fountain, and municipal buildings, all remind us that in Italy 
the dignity of life resting directly on ancient civilisation does 
not depend upon a teeming population. It was in the Church 
of S. Sebastiano that Perugino painted the martyrdom of 
the saint. The visitor will do well to remain near the door 
of the church, and not attempt to go near the picture. Let 
him use a good field-glass, and he will be able to enjoy the 
single figure of St. Sebastian, pale in colour, hardly relieved 
indeed from its delicate background, and distinguished by 
simplicity and grace. The scene is set in a semicircular 
portico of Renaissance design. There is a most charming 
air of noonday in summer. It is the court of some palace 
far too magnificent to be crowded: a place where life is 
lived on too great a scale to allow of ordinary emotion. St. 
Sebastian stands bound to his pillar, without a trace of 
personal anxiety. He looks upwards with a devout and 
somewhat melancholy air. In an evil moment Perugino 



344 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

has added an uninspired and unimaginative design in the 
pediment above, which is without charm of any kind. For- 
tunately, both this part of the picture and the archers below 
can be cut off from the central design, if the spectator is at 
a sufficient distance. 

Another fresco attributed to Perugino, and unfortunately 
much damaged, is preserved in this church. Madonna and 
Child are attended by four angels making music. Two 
angels float in the air above, holding a crown over Madonna's 
head. Below kneel St. Mary Magdalene and a Bishop. 

The road from Panicale to Citta della Pieve leads down 
a steep hill into a valley, where the stream is lined by poplar 
trees, and where even in the heat of summer there is verdure. 
Several small hill towns are passed, and, as the high ground 
is again reached, views of Lake Trasimeno, of Cortona, and 
of Perugia, appear and disappear as the road rises and falls. 

The town of Citta della Pieve stands high above the rail- 
way which passes between Chiusi and Orvieto. It is the 
seat of a Bishop, and in the Duomo there are several pic- 
tures of the school of Perugino, of no great merit. The 
subjects are : Madonna and Child with SS. Peter, Paul, 
Gervasius, and Protasius, behind the choir. To the right 
of the choir, Madonna and Child on a high throne, with SS. 
John the Evangelist and Peter Martyr, and St. John the 
Baptist, and another Martyr. In the first chapel to the left 
in the nave, is the Baptism of Christ. 

The object of a visit to this place is the great fresco by 
Perugino, in Sta. Maria dei Bianchi. It is an immense 
design, twenty-six or twenty-eight feet wide, representing 
the Adoration of the Magi. The picture was painted in 
1504. It is a busy scene. Soldiers and others ride down 
the hills in the background. Shepherds in sentimental pose 
tend their flocks in the middle distance. In the foreground 
the old king kneels before the Child, while an attendant holds 
his crown, and, at some little distance to the right, another 
king of middle age also kneels. These two kings are nimbed. 
The third, a young man, stands behind ; he wears a crown 
over his hat, and has no nimbus. There are attendant 



PANIC ALE AND CITTA DELL A PI EVE 345 

groups to right and left, each figure carefully placed, and 
wearing a self-conscious air. 

The picture has been damaged and the gracious effect of 
the colour has to some extent gone, but there is still a flash 
of gold in the detail, and in the far distance there is some 
dream of the Lake of Trasimeno lying between gentle hills, 
on which grow trees that are only seen in Perugino's frescoes. 
As the traveller drives down among the oak woods along 
the steep road which leads to Chiusi, he will count himself 
fortunate in memories of the celestial landscape which will 
haunt him long after he has forgotten the somewhat feeble 
drama of the picture. 

CHIUSI 

Chiusi, the Etruscan Clusium, was an ancient city known 
as Camars, and probably of Umbrian foundation. It has a 
commanding position upon a hill, rising above the fertile 
valley of the Chiana, and near to a small lake which bears 
its name. Clusium became one of the chief towns of the 
Etruscan confederation and was probably at the height 
of her power under her chieftain, Lars Porsena, who, about 
505 B.C., according to the legendary history of Rome, joined 
the deposed tyrant, Tarquinius Priscus, and attacked the 
city. A tomb, discovered in the neighbourhood of Chiusi, 
with a number of labyrinthine passages, has been supposed 
to correspond with Pliny's description of the celebrated 
mausoleum of Porsena, but later investigations have shown 
that this is not one single sepulchre but a collection of tombs 
connected by underground passages. 

Judging from the cemeteries surrounding the town, Clusium 
must have been a powerful and wealthy city, with a long 
history. The well-tombs containing pottery of a primitive 
description date from the seventh and eighth centuries B.C., 
while the stone-built sepulchres and the painted chambers 
cut out of the rock give evidence of the continued existence 
of a large population in the district up to the third and 
second centuries before our era. The chief interest of 



346 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

the modern town is in the Etruscan collections belonging 
to the Municipality, and the Tombs of the district. 

The date of the subjugation of Clusium by the Romans 
is not known, and few traces remain of the Roman occu- 
pation. 

The town became the see of a Bishop at an early date, 
and the Christian Catacombs in the neighbourhood prove 
the existence of the Christian society at a remote period. 
The Cathedral of S. Mustiola is said to date from the 
year 765. It is an ancient structure which has lately 
been remodelled and decorated in imitation of the early 
Basilicas. In the nave there are eighteen ancient columns 
with different capitals. The church is dedicated in the 
name of S. Mustiola, a noble matron and a citizen of 
Chiusi, who suffered martyrdom in the time of the Emperor 
Valerian. 

During the Middle Ages the town was of no importance, 
and had a bad reputation for unhealthiness on account 
of the surrounding marshes. It was the custom for the 
chief magistrate of Chiusi to wed the lake annually with 
a ring, as was done similarly by the Doges of Venice. 
Dante, in the Comedy, cites Chiusi as an instance of a 
city that has come to its appointed end. The town, how- 
ever, has risen from its state of decay since the marshes 
in the Valley of the Chiana have been drained, and is now 
a small but fairly prosperous place. 

The Tombs 

The following five tombs in the neighbourhood of Chiusi 
are quite accessible for visitors : — 

(1.) Deposito della Scimia, the Tomb of the Monkey. 

(2.) Deposito del Gran Duca. 

(3.) Deposito del Poggio-Gajella, commonly called the 
Tomb of Porsena. 

(4.) Deposito del Colle. 

(5.) Deposito di Grande Vigna. 

The two first of these tom£>s, the Della Scimia, and the 



CHIUSI 347 

Gran Duca, lie in the same direction, and taken together they 
give a fair idea of the general character of the paintings 
and sepulchral architecture of the neighbourhood. 

The custodian of the tombs can be engaged at the Museo 
Civico. If a carriage is taken, the excursion may be made 
in about two and a half hours. Leaving the town in a north- 
easterly direction, the road winds rapidly down hill between 
red sandstone banks and overgrown hedges, and in front is a 
tract of richly wooded country covered with oak groves and 
olive gardens. 

Turning to the left, within a few feet of the level of the 
Lake of Chiusi the road crosses the railway to Siena, and 
soon after brings us to the foot of the hill, which must be 
climbed on foot. 

In about a quarter of an hour a farm is reached, the 
Podere della Paccianese, where the tomb known as the 
Deposito del Gran Duca was discovered in 1818. It 
comes as a surprise to the traveller when a door which 
seems to form part of the outbuildings of the farm is opened 
and gives entrance to a low chamber of beautiful and re- 
gular masonry with a vaulted roof. The room is about ten 
feet by thirteen feet, and has benches of solid stone along the 
sides. The door is formed of two blocks, one of which still 
remains in position, and above the lintel is an arch of 
masonry. 

Eight ^chests containing ashes stand upon the benches. 
Only three of these have recumbent figures upon the lids, 
and the reliefs upon the chests are chiefly symbols relating to 
the under-world. 

Beginning to the left of the entrance — 

(1.) A round disc between two half shields. 

(2.) A Hippocampus, significant of the migration of the 
soul. 

(3.) A Medusa head, probably placed on the chest as a 
talisman to ward off any who might disturb the ashes or 
injure the shade. 

(4.) Another Medusa head between two Furies holding 
torches. 



348 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

(5.) A young man riding upon a panther. This relief re- 
sembles the design of Bacchus riding upon a panther, of the 
famous bronze mirror in the Museum of Perugia. 

(6.) A Hippocampus. 

(7.) Shields. 

(8.) A Marine Deity. 

[The Deposito di Grande Vigna, about three-quarters of 
a mile from Chiusi to the south-west, is a stone-built tomb 
very similar to the Gran Duca. The urns, however, of this 
sepulchre have all been removed to the Museo Civico.] 

Leaving the farm, the way to the Deposito della Scimia 
is still farther up the hillside. 

The tomb is reached at the bottom of a long staircase 
which has been cut out of the slope. The sepulchre, which 
is supposed to be the oldest of the painted tombs found in 
Chiusi, has four chambers, all with benches against the 
walls. The roofs are cut out of the tufa, and are artificially 
coffered. Some have cornices. The principal paintings 
are in the central chamber, and represent the games, 
races, and sports held at the funeral in honour of the 
dead. 

There is no evidence of symbolical intention in any of the 
parts of the design. The only spectator is the person in 
whose honour the tomb is decorated, and in the figures of 
athletes, giants, dwarfs, and pugilists the Etruscan artist has 
given full license to his love of simple realism. In dealing 
with these thoroughly native figures in their national cos- 
tumes he is not restrained by the influence of Hellenic com- 
positions or conceptions. He depicts the people just as he 
saw them in everyday life. 

Beginning on the wall to the right of the entrance we see 
first the grave and dignified figure of a seated lady, the 
solitary spectator of all that follows. This figure is probably a 
portrait, but the face is now much destroyed. She sits 
under an umbrella, and has a footstool at her feet. 

In front of her are a number of horses, some mounted and 
some led, and a man blows a trumpet as though announcing 
that the races are about to begin. 



CHIUSI 349 

On the wall, on the other side of the door, is a curiously 
dressed person described as a pyrrhic dancer. He has 
a shield and a spear, and wears a helmet with two long 
cockades. The Etruscan dancers were famed for their skill 
and for their eloquence in dumb show. Opposite to the 
dancers are two small musicians blowing pipes. Following 
round the room, on the wall opposite to the door, are two 
naked pugilists with their coats lying upon a seat beside 
them. They have each one hand open for defence, and the 
other closed for attack. (The custodian explains these 
figures as men playing the Italian game of "moro.") Next 
to the pugilists is a tall naked man with a spear taking a 
flask from a boy who carries a branch. 

Passing the entrance to the next chamber, there follow two 
wrestlers in extraordinary attitudes, attended by an official 
of some sort, who wears a wreath of leaves, a striped tunic, 
and high boots. He appears to act as umpire. Beyond are 
horse races, where the riders are seated sideways upon 
their beasts, and the sports close with the figure of a giant 
dragging a dwarf along by the wrist. 

The figures are for the most part coloured a dark red and 
outlined with black. Underneath them there is a Greek 
scroll of the key pattern, and round the top of the wall is a 
frieze consisting of the egg and dart moulding in an elemen- 
tary form. 

In the chamber which leads from the central room, in a 
straight line from the entrance, there are remains of un- 
finished paintings. The figures of two young men are the 
only distinguishable fragments. In the recesses of the 
coffered roof are four ivy leaves in a circle, and at the 
corners four Furies. 

The Deposito del Collo, close to the town on the south- 
east, has paintings illustrating in a similar fashion the sports 
and games held in honour of the dead. 

The Deposito del Poggio-Gajella, to the north-east of 
the town, is a collection of tombs in the hillside arranged in 
three tiers, one above the other. There is also a circular 
chamber connected with a number of labyrinthine passages, 



35o SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

which gave rise to the supposition that this was the tornb of 
Porsena. 



The Museums 

The Etruscan collection is in process of removal and 
rearrangement. At present it is divided. The vases and 
bronzes remain in the old building, and the urns, sarcophagi, 
and statues have been removed to the new museum. There 
is no official catalogue. Three points of interest are presented 
by this collection — 

(i.) The Bucchero ware peculiar to the district. 

(2.) The growth of the art of sculpture in representing 
the human form. 

(3.) The illustration of the Etruscan doctrine of Genii, 
or attendant spirits. 

The Bucchero collection. At present in the old museum* 

This black ware was the national pottery of the Etrus- 
cans. Its manufacture became established about the end of 
the seventh century B.C., and it maintained its popularity 
for the space of three centuries. Chiusi became a centre of 
the Bucchero industry and developed a style peculiar to 
itself, which, after the end of the sixth century, was adopted 
throughout Etruria. 

Dealing first with the style of Bucchero, which preceded 
the pottery peculiar to Chiusi, the usual ornament consists 
of bands of figures in low relief of Assyrian and Egyptian 
type. The figures are, as a rule, those of stags, panthers, 
lions, and other wild beasts. The artists seem to have had 
no definitely fixed style of their own, but copied the various 
designs of the imported models. A few examples of this 
period of Eastern influences will be found in the cases. 

When we turn to the Bucchero peculiar to the neigh- 
bourhood of Chiusi which was the product of a later 
civilisation, we find that the style of the designs is much 
more stable. 

The characteristic Chiusi vases are tall, with slender 
necks, and generally crownec^ by a bird on the lid ; while- 



CHIUSI 351 

the body of the vessel is so covered with figures in high 
relief that the outline is almost lost. We see here another 
Instance of the absence of any highly artistic perception 
among the Etruscans. When they cease to copy others, their 
designs become tasteless and overloaded with ornament. 

These vases, which were used to contain the ashes of the 
dead, are found in the tombs of an early date. The reliefs 
upon them are symbols relating to death and the life of 
the shades. 

Wild beasts carrying off their prey express emblematically 
the capture of the living by Fate or by other messengers of 
Death, in accordance with the belief that the end of human 
life is due to an act of violence on the part of unseen 
powers. The horses' heads, which appear among the figures 
in relief, indicate the journey of the soul to the underworld, 
and the veiled women's faces are probably personifications 
of Death or of the spirits of the dead. Some of the geo- 
metrical designs include the symbolical figure known as the 
Gamma Cross or Svastika, which is to be found among 
the signs of almost every semi-civilised race. On the 
shelves are a number of trays with a raised edge, known as 
Focolari, which are only found in the Bucchero ware. 
They contain several pots of varying shapes and sizes, and 
are found, as a rule, on the floor of the tomb, placed beside 
the cinerary chest, or close to the bench upon which the 
dead bodies were laid. It is supposed that the vessels con- 
tained either toilet preparations, or food and drink for the 
use of the shade. Several of these trays are ornamented 
with symbolical figures, such as veiled faces, wild beasts 
carrying off their prey, and Gorgon heads. One of the 
most conspicuous objects on the shelves beside the Bucchero 
is a vase of unbaked clay of extraordinary appearance. On 
the lid is a statuette of a woman, with two long locks of hair 
coming down on either side of her face, and a mass of 
pleats clubbed together behind. She presses a flower to 
her breast, and kisses the tips of the fingers of her other 
hand as though in the act of saying farewell. Below her, 
rising from the sides of the vase, are two circles of small 



352 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

veiled female figures with huge dragon heads between them, 
both being personifications of the infernal regions. 

The statue in the centre may represent Persephone, queen 
of the lower regions, or it may be simply the portrait of the 
dead woman whose ashes are contained in the vase. In 
either case the coquettish action of the little figure seems 
strangely incongruous in the midst of the grim images of 
Death. 

The Bronzes. Among the collections of bronzes (at 
present in the old building) are various domestic utensils 
and toilet implements, such as lamps, strainers, mirrors, 
strigils, and razors. A large bronze sacrificial vessel or 
brazier has seven small statuettes attached to the brim, 
some male and some female. 

The Sarcophagi, Cinerary Chests, and Statues. There 
are still a few chests in the old building of the museum, but 
by far the larger number and all the important pieces are 
now removed to the new museum. 

This collection affords good illustrations of the various 
stages in the art of representing the human form. The 
first stage is represented in Chiusi by vases with human 
heads for lids, which may perhaps be accounted for as 
follows: — In some of the primitive well -tombs cinerary 
vases have been found with a mask of a human face hung 
round the neck. This mask was probably taken from the 
face of the dead and attached to the vase for the purpose 
of marking the identity of the ashes. It is possible that 
this may have suggested the idea to the potters of Chiusi 
of bringing the vase and the mask into closer connection by 
making the lid into a human head which should also be a 
likeness of the dead person. 

The body of the vase containing the ashes then came to 
be looked upon as a figure of a human bust and shoulders, 
and the handles were replaced by arms with fingers. Orna- 
ments were added, such as necklaces, earrings, and bracelets, 
and the grotesque production was placed upon an armchair 
made either of bronze or terra-cotta. Such vases are called 
Canopi, and all the known examples have been derived 



CHIUSI 353 

from the neighbourhood of Chiusi. They are made of 
Bucchero and of terra-cotta, and sometimes the vase is of 
bronze with a clay head. The heads of the Canopi are. 
movable, and are generally perforated with holes on the 
top, for the purpose, it is supposed, of allowing the shade 
to escape. 

The efforts of the artist are all directed towards the pro- 
duction of a portrait. Hence peculiarities of feature are 
accentuated, such as long or short noses, large or small 
chins, and the particular fashion of wearing the hair. 

Having now obtained a roughly modelled head and 
shoulders, the next step was to convert the vase into the 
trunk of the human body without legs. 

In the New Museum, to the left of the entrance in the 
corridor, are several examples of this stage of representation. 
No. 483, for instance, has a movable head upon a rudely 
formed trunk without legs, and is placed upon a seat in the 
same fashion as the Canopi. 

These primitive hollow statues made in a sitting posture, 
and with two feet added, resemble the seated figures of 
archaic Greek type ; but always with this notable differ- 
ence, that the Etruscan artist never loses sight of his inten- 
tion to secure the likeness of a given individual. His power 
of modelling the features is small, but he takes care to 
reproduce those traits which shall be easily recognisable. 
The seated statue of a woman, in the corridor, holding a 
pomegranate in her outstretched hand, is an interesting 
example of realism combined with archaic conventionalism 
and rigidity. 

Another primitive statue, close beside the last mentioned, 
may be considered before passing on to the later sculptures, 
although it belongs to a different category to these portrait 
figures. It is a half-length statue of a woman in fetid 
limestone, probably of great antiquity. It was found at 
Chiusi, used as a tombstone, and is supposed to represent 
Persephone, Queen of Hades. The hair is arranged in 
quaint rigid plaits. The eyes are wide open and expression- 
less, and the lips are parted with a set smile. This is evi- 

z 



354 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

dently no realistic portrait, but an attempt to represent an 
ideal type of the " desolating slayer." 

The third stage of representation is reached when the 
sculptor succeeds in realising the human form, and ceases to 
use his figures as receptacles for the ashes. The dead 
person is represented as reclining upon a couch that forms 
the lid of the chest or sarcophagus in which the remains 
are preserved. Many of the figures are so lifelike that we 
seem, in this hall, to be in the presence of a large company 
of men and women resting at ease upon their stone couches 
in the gay intercourse of a perpetual festival. 

The realistic effect would have been much greater if all 
these figures had retained their original covering of paint. 
The well-preserved statue of the comely matron, Seianti 
Thanunia, which was obtained from Chiusi and is now in 
the British Museum, gives some idea of the striking appear- 
ance of such lifelike images when the original bright clear 
colouring has been retained. 

A few of the sarcophagi and chests in the Museum are of 
marble, but the sculptors as a rule did not trouble them- 
selves to procure the finest materials. They used the stone 
of the district, and trusted to the covering of paint to hide 
the deficiencies. 

At Chiusi the chests and statues are chiefly of travertine 
or of the soft fetid limestone found in the neighbourhood. 

Two large sarcophagi with recumbent figures of men 
upon the lids may be taken as good examples of the realistic 
portrait statues. 

One sarcophagus, at present placed about the middle of 
the hall, is moulded in the form of a couch or bedstead, with 
polychrome decorations. On the lid lies the slight figure of 
a young man with a scroll in his hand. He is not reclining 
upon his left elbow in the usual attitude, but lies with one 
hand under the pillow upon which his head is resting. He 
has a lean face with strongly marked eyebrows, a small but 
well-defined chin, and a thin firm nose. The impression 
given is that of an acutely intellectual face. The hair is 
painted black and crowned x with a chaplet. It was the 



CHIUSI 355 

custom among both Greeks and Romans at festive banquets 
to wear garlands, which were sometimes made of wool, 
sometimes of leaves and flowers. Similar crowns, according 
to Dennis, were given by the Etruscans to the dead as 
symbols of the kingdom which they had come to inherit, 
where there was an eternal festival and freedom from care. 

No. 752, another large stone sarcophagus near to the 
entrance, has the figure of a young man of an entirely dif- 
ferent type to the last. His hair is closely clipped, and he 
wears no jewels. He has a low forehead and small chin, 
but in spite of insignificant features, he has a genial and 
pleasant expression. 

Some of the recumbent figures are carefully finished and 
of considerable merit ; many, however, in this collection can 
hardly be called works of art. The figures are like dwarfs 
with disproportioned heads, and are evidently the produc- 
tions of untrained workmen. 

The subjects of the reliefs upon the sarcophagi and 
chests should be carefully studied. 

A comparatively small number are illustrations of the 
mythology and heroic legends of Greece, while the larger 
proportion represent scenes of farewell between the dead and 
their relations, and the journey of the soul to the under- 
world. 

The Mythological scenes, it will be noticed, are all of a 
tragic character, and relate to the judgments of fate. The 
sin of presumption, and the necessity of submission to the 
decrees of the Immortals, is illustrated by the punishments 
meted out to those who had vainly imagined themselves to 
be like gods, or who had committed the crime of crimes 
among primitive societies, the bloodshed of kindred. 

The subjects which occur most frequently, are the sacrifice 
of Iphigenia, the combat between Eteokles and Polyneikes 
the Theban brothers, the death of Hippolytos, the destruc- 
tion of Laokoon, the tragic end of Priam and Kassandra, 
the conflicts of the Greeks with the Amazons. (For a short 
explanation of some of the principal Greek legends illus- 
trated upon Etruscan chests, see Perugia, Museum, p. 40.) 



356 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

Scenes illustrating the Migration of the Soul. 

A large number of the urns represent the soul accom- 
panied by its attendant spirits and by demons and furies on 
its way to the gate of Hades. 

The collection affords a good opportunity of studying 
the Etruscan demonology and the doctrine of Genii or 
attendant Spirits. 

The attendant spirits are generally represented as young 
female figures with wings, clothed in tunics and high boots 
with flaps, and carrying torches. They are introduced into 
all the deathbed and farewell scenes, and they invariably go 
with the soul on its journey to Hades. From the inscrip- 
tions upon the painted vases we learn that such spirits were 
called by the Etruscans " Lasa." 

The Lasa is, as a rule, young and beautiful. She is the 
faithful companion of the soul not only in life but in death, 
for it was believed that the Lasa went with the shade to the 
underworld and was transformed into a serpent. Besides 
these benevolent spirits we find a large number of male- 
volent beings, the denizens of the lower world and the 
messengers of Death. 

Charun is the most noticeable among the demons. He 
resembles the Greek Charon in some aspects, but his duties 
are not only to convey the souls but to punish the con- 
demned. He is represented as a brutal-looking man, with an 
enormous nose, pointed chin, and large tusks. He is gene- 
rally armed with a hammer, sometimes with an oar. He is 
seen striking down his prey or dragging them towards the 
gate of Hades, which is guarded by a three-headed dog. 
Charun is frequently accompanied by Fates or Furies. 
They are female figures with wings, and dressed in the 
same fashion as the Lasa. But they show no goodwill 
towards their victims, and seem to exult in the midst of 
death and slaughter. Sometimes they are represented as 
old and ugly women, with large noses and prominent chins ; 
but they also are represented as young and beautiful, and 
hardly distinguishable in appearance from the Lasa. 

This world of winged spirits and of medieeval-looking 






CHIUSI 357 

demons is introduced into the illustrations of the Greek 
heroic legends. When Paris and Helen set sail, a Fury 
flies above their heads carrying an extinguished torch. 
Another of these spirits watches the conflict between the 
Theban brothers (as on No. 232), or springs up between 
them when the fatal blow had been given, and lays a 
hand upon the shoulder of each. Charun looks on at the 
gate of Troy when the wooden horse is about to enter. 

The introduction of these incongruous figures into the 
Hellenic compositions is a reflection of the persistent aim 
of the Etruscan artist to impress the stamp of reality upon 
his work. It must be admitted that his imagination is often 
unrestrained by good taste or a sense of dignity, and that 
the conception of the scene is brutal and without elevation. 
The sword that pierces the hero is always driven up to the 
hilt, and no detail is omitted which will heighten the appear- 
ance of suffering. In scenes of human sacrifice the victim 
about to be slain upon the altar is held down by the hair. 

No. 886, a small chest on the floor, has a clearly defined 
picture of the soul, accompanied by its attendant Lasa, 
with the usual wings, high boots, and a torch. These two 
figures are followed by a Charun, a bare-legged man with 
grotesque features and armed with a hammer. 

A number of small chests on the shelf represent a winged 
Fury drawing the soul towards the gate of Hades, which 
is guarded by a three-headed dog. 

No. 802 is a good example of the same scene. 

Nos. 57, 422, 805, and 838 illustrate scenes of the parting 
"between the dead and the living at the gate of the tomb. 
The attendant Lasa stands with an extinguished torch, 
and in some cases Charun, armed with his hammer, prepares 
to drive the shade before him. 

Many of the small chests have simply a representation of 
a gate or door of the tomb, between two cypresses. The 
cypress tree was sacred to the god of the underworld, a 
powerful and much dreaded deity, to whom at one period 
of their history the Etruscans sacrificed human beings. 



358 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

MONTEFALCO 

The small town of Montefalco may be reached by driving 
from Foligno, from Spoleto, or from Assisi. It is on the 
top of a hill, and in all directions there are lovely views of 
the Umbrian valleys, which make it well worth a visit, apart 
from its artistic interest. 

The principal pictures are now gathered together in the 
church of S. Francesco, which is virtually the town museum. 
In the choir Benozzo Gozzoli painted a series of pictures 
of the life of St. Francis about the year 1452. Benozzo is 
interesting as having been the pupil or assistant of Fra 
Angelico, and also as having influenced several Umbrian 
painters, such as Bonfigli, Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, and Niccolo 
da Foligno. The colour of these frescoes is bright and 
cheerful, and there is a simple, almost childlike realism 
throughout. The necessary figures are set down plainly, 
the supposed action is described simply, and a suitable 
background is provided. There is no exaggeration in the 
expression of feeling, nor is there any imagination. The 
whole is a moderately competent piece of craftsmanship. 
The story of the life of St. Francis begins at the lower left- 
hand corner. 

Plan XXVI. (p. 360). 

No. 1. Francis is born in a stable; the ox and the ass are 
in the background. 

No. 2. A pilgrim prophesies concerning Francis. A poor 
man spreads his cloak for Francis to walk upon. 

No. 3. Francis meets a poor nobleman and gives him his 
cloak. 

No. 4. Francis dreams and sees the vision of a palace 
decked with flags and coats-of-arms. Christ appears to him 
and tells him that the palace is for him and his warriors. 

No. 5. Francis renounces his family and the world ; the 
Bishop covers him with his robe. 

No. 6. Pope Innocent III. dreams that he sees the Church 
of St. John Lateran supported by a poor man. 

No. 7. Innocent III. approves the rule. Benozzo has sue- 



MONTEFALCO 359 

ceeded here in drawing a distinction between the worldly 
shrewdness of the Cardinals and the rapt devotion of 
Francis. 

No. 8. The devils are exorcised from the town of Arezzo. 
The figures of the two brethren, Francis in prayer and Sil- 
vestro commanding the devils, are good. 

No. 9. Francis preaches to the birds near Bevagna. He 
speaks with conviction and fervour ; the brother who ac- 
companies him is lost in amazement. In the background 
is Monte Subasio, with Assisi in the distance. 

No. 10. Francis blesses the people of Montefalco. 

No. 11. Death of the Lord of Celano. 

No. 12. Meeting of Francis and Dominic. To the left 
the Virgin kneels before Christ. She shows the deeds of 
Francis to Christ, and He bears the lance with which the 
wounds of the Stigmata are to be given. 

No. 13. Francis before the Soldan. Francis stands in the 
fire with the Cross in one hand and the other raised. Two 
wise men look on in fear, and with an air of indignant pro- 
test. Benozzo has painted aloes in the background as being 
suitable to an Eastern land, but he does not forget his own 
Florentine cypresses. 

No. 14. The Presepio. Francis folds the Child tenderly 
in his arms and presses his lips to the Child's face. The ox 
and the ass lie under a low shed in the church. The archi- 
tectural background shows the application of Renaissance 
detail to a Gothic interior. 

No. 15. Francis receives the Stigmata. 

No. 16. The dead body is examined, and the facts of the 
Stigmata are verified. 

No. 17. St. Francis in Glory. 

No. 18. St. Anthony of Padua. 

No. 19. St. Louis the Archbishop. The crown he has re- 
fused lies at his feet. 

No. 20. St. Catherine (probably of Siena). She wears a 
grey robe and black hood, and bears a lily. 

No. 21. Sta. Rosa of Viterbo. She is crowned, and has 
a lap full of roses. 



360 



SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 



No. 22. S. Bernardino. 

No. 23. Round the arch of the choir are painted Francis and 
his twelve disciples. There is no doubt an intention to honour 




the first disciples, and also a desire to remind worshippers 
of the conformity of the life of Francis with that of Christ. 
The author of the Fioretti say^ : " For since St. Francis, the 



MONTBFALCO 361 

true servant of Christ, was in certain things given to the 
world for the salvation of men, therefore God the Father 
made him conformed to, and like His Son in many acts." 

On the walls of the choir below the story of St. Francis, 
there is a series of pictures representing men held in honour 
by the brethren. 

No. 24. The central figure is Dante ; to his right is Giotto 
and to his left Petrarch. 

Nos. 25 and 26. Figures of Popes, of the Emperor Con- 
stantine, King Robert of Naples, Cardinals, and Doctors. 

Nos. 27 and 28. Figures of Brethren and others, including 
John of Parma and Nicholas of Lira. 

In the chapel to the left of the choir there are frescoes in 
the style of the Giotteschi. 

On the left is a Crucifixion ; on the right, Descent into 
Hades and " Noli me tangere." 

In the chapel to the right of the choir there is, to the left 
a Crucifixion and St. Catherine of Alexandria, and on the 
right Madonna and Child and an Entombment. 

In the north-western corner of the nave there are fres- 
coes, the principal one on the west wall being by Perugino. 

1. In the lower part of the picture there is a Nativity, in 
which the Child, resting on the ground, is adored by 
Madonna, Joseph, and the shepherds. The pillars support- 
ing the roof of the stable are of elaborate Renaissance design. 
There is a lovely landscape in the background. In the 
lunette above is the Father Eternal in a heavy almond- 
shaped glory with angels adoring. 

2. Madonna and Child with a Saint and a Bishop. 

3. St. Anthony of Padua drives out the devil from a man, 
and joins the leg of a man to the stump. 

In the south-western corner of the church is a fresco by 
Benozzo Gozzoli, dated 1452. In the centre is Madonna 
and Child. To the left SS. Jerome and Anthony of Padua, 
to the right SS. John the Baptist and Louis. Above are 
medallions with the four Evangelists, and on the pinnacles 
are the four Doctors of the Latin Church. Above the whole 
is a Crucifixion. At the sides of the main picture St. Jerome 



362 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

is seen with the Cardinal's hat at his feet, and taking a 
thorn from the lion's foot. 

On the underside of the arch of the nave opposite to this 
picture there are angels by Benozzo, which suggest the 
source of Bonfigli's inspiration. 

The side chapels to the south of the nave have frescoes on 
the roof, beginning nearest the choir. 

1. Christ and the four Evangelists. 

2. Scenes from the life of St. Anthony the Abbot. 

3. Prophets, Evangelists, and Doctors. 

In the sacristy there is the original standard carried 
before S. Bernardino ; the monogram is in gold on a blue 
ground. 

There is also a carved stone which was set up over the 
gates of Montefalco when the town was taken by the Em- 
peror Frederick II. in 1244. Various panels have been 
collected and hung in the church. 

S. Agostino. On the roof of the sacristy of this church 
there are frescoes, probably of the fourteenth century. In 
the centre is Christ. In each vault is one of the four 
Doctors, and at the angles there are Sta. Monica and St. 
Anthony, St. John the Baptist, and St. Paul the Hermit, 
St. Catherine of Alexandria and B. Augustus of Siena, St. 
Nicholas of Tolentino and B. Zonantias of Aurelia. 

There are many examples of the work of a local artist 
named Melanzio to be found in Montefalco. He painted 
in the latter years of the fifteenth century. His pictures 
have only an interest as being the work of one who lived in 
this little hill village. 

In the Church, of S. Leonardo there is an elaborate 
picture attributed to Melanzio. Madonna and Child are 
attended by SS. Bonaventura, John the Baptist, John the 
Evangelist, and Sebastian. On a lower level are SS. 
Chiara and Elizabeth, SS. Anthony of Padua and Louis 
the Archbishop, with SS. Jerome and Francis. 

The Church of S. IILuminato contains a number of fres- 
coes in poor condition. 

To the left — Madonna and Child with Saints ; Nativity, 



MONTEFALCO 363 

Adoration of the Magi, and the Flight into Egypt ; 
Madonna. 

To the right — Martyrdom of St. Catherine, Assumption of 
the Virgin, Madonna and Child with Saints. 

A short distance from the gate and near to the road 
leading to Spoleto is the monastery and church of S. 
Fortunate 

In the church there are some remains of pictures by 
Benozzo Gozzoli. 

In the cloister there is the chapel of the Rosary, painted 
by Tiberio d'Assisi. 

1. St. Francis rolls among the thorns ; an angel turns 
them into roses. 

2. St. Francis, attended by angels, carries the roses, and 

3. Lays them on the altar. 

4. St. Francis gives the roses to the Pope. 

5. Publication of the Canonisation of St. Francis (?). 

SPELLO 

Spello stands on the site of a Roman town of which there 
are many traces. The main entrance is through a Roman 
gateway. The mediaeval walls contain many fragments 
of ancient building, and considerable remains of an amphi- 
theatre are seen not far from the gate on the road to 
As si si. 

The principal monument is the Duomo, standing in a 
small piazza to the right of the main street a few minutes' 
walk from the gate. 

The western facade has a single doorway, with sculptured 
reliefs upon the jambs and lintels. On the jambs there is 
the familiar Romanesque design of a vine with animals, &c, 
among the branches. The lintel is composed of a number 
of fragments, including sculptures of a dog chasing a stag, 
an eagle devouring a hare, and two lions fighting. 

Passing to the interior there is, on the left side of the nave, 
the Baglioni chapel, in which Pinturicchio painted three 
large frescoes. On the left wall is the Annunciation, on the 



364 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

wall facing the visitor is the Nativity, and on the right wall 
Christ among the Doctors. The general design is striking 
and highly decorative. 

1. The Annunciation. The angel is a remarkable pre- 
sentment, the painter has had a genuine inspiration, and 
this piece of work would warrant us in placing Pinturicchio 
in a high position among contemporary Umbrian artists. 
Madonna is a simple figure disturbed in her reading by the 
appearance of the angel. 

2. The Nativity includes an Adoration of the shepherds ; 
one brings an offering, eggs, and another a sheep. In the 
background the three kings arrive. The landscape is not 
designed with the fine insight of Perugino. Two angels kneel 
beside the infant, one of them bearing the figure of the Cross. 

3. Christ among the Doctors forms a striking picture. 
In the background is a temple, and from it there is a broad 
walk in the centre of which stands the Child. On each 
side are groups of Jews ; some of them have thrown down 
their books in despair. On the roof of the chapel are painted 
four sibyls, those of Erythraea and Europa, and of Tivoli 
and Samos. These prophetesses each have their traditional 
mission, but the inscriptions are too much damaged to 
enable us to say what significance may have been attached 
to them here. 

Two inferior pictures of the Umbrian school, a Pieta on 
the left and Madonna and Child to the right, are on the 
piers at the entrance of the choir. In the sacristy there 
is a small Madonna and Child attributed to Pinturicchio. 
Over the altar is a spacious Ciborium of Renaissance design. 

S. Andrea. A little higher than the Duomo, in the main 
street of the town, is the Church of S. Andrea. In the 
southern transept there is a large altar-piece attributed to 
Pinturicchio. 

A chapel near the western entrance is covered with frescoes 
in a poor state of preservation. 

S. Girolamo is an interesting church outside the walls. 
The main street should be followed up to the gate at the 
high part of the town ; from this point a pleasant walk 



MONTEFALCO 365 

among olive trees leads to the church. The view looking 
down over the vale of Spoleto is particularly fine. The 
loggia in front of the church contains some frescoes showing 
incidents in the history of St. Francis. 

1. The Bishop covers Francis when he renounces his 
father. 

2. Francis receives the Stigmata. 

3. The preaching of the Indulgence. 

Within the church, at the back of the high altar, there is 
an unpretending Umbrian picture representing the Sposalizio. 

The pictures at S. Girolamo are of no great moment, but. 
a couple of hours is well spent in a visit to this beautiful 
spot. A direct path leads under the shade of the olives to 
the entrance gate of the town. 

FOLIGNO 

The Trinci family were rulers of Foligno from the be- 
ginning of the fourteenth century until the papal legate 
expelled the last of the family in 1439. In the contest 
between Gregory IX. and the Emperor Frederick II. the 
head of the house, Corrado Trinci, took the side of the 
Church, and the family were the chiefs of the Guelph party 
in the town. The Trinci ruled as " Gonfalonieri " or " Capi- 
tani," or as Vicars, but always by and with the goodwill of 
the Popes ; and when Conrad, the ninth lord, quarrelled 
with Eugenius IV., he was expelled. In 1424 the chapel 
in the Trinci Palace, now the Palazzo del Governo, was 
painted by Ottaviano Nelli. 

Frescoes in the Trinci Chapel. 

Plan XXVII. (p. 366). 

(1.) Joachim and Anna make their offerings in the Temple. 
(2.) An angel appears to Joachim in the desert and to Anna 
in the house, bidding them to meet each other at the Golden 
Gate in Jerusalem. (3.) The meeting of Joachim and Anna, 
(4.) The Nativity of the Virgin. (5.) The Presentation of the 
Virgin in the Temple. (6.) The Sposalizio. (7.) The An- 



3 66 



SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 



nunciation. (8.) The Nativity of Christ. (9.) The Adoration 
of the Magi. (10.) The Apostles visit Madonna before they 
set out to preach. (11.) The Apostles are recalled miracu- 




lously to witness the death of the Virgin. (12.) Death of 
Madonna. Her soul is carried to heaven in the arms of 
Christ. N 



FOLIGNO 367 

Frescoes not shown in the plan include the Presentation 
of the Child in the Temple and the Annunciation to Madonna 
of her approaching death by an angel. Apart from this 
series there is— (13.) The Crucifixion. (14.) SS. John the 
Baptist, Anthony, and Dominic. (15.) Francis receives the 
Stigmata. These frescoes have little except a certain effect 
of colour to recommend them. They show how entirely 
the painter remained outside the powerful influences that 
were moving contemporary artists in other parts of Italy. 

In the desecrated Church of the Annunziata there is a 
Baptism by Perugino. It can only be seen under unfavour- 
able conditions, and has been a good deal damaged. It is 
not a good example of the painter : the vapid sentiment 
which seems to have been his constant temptation has here 
completely mastered him. In the semi-dome the Father 
Eternal sits holding a globe. Below is the scene of the 
Baptism. Besides the usual attendant angels there are a 
number of cherub heads and two angels in adoration in 
the air. 

In the Church of S. Niccolo there are two paintings by 
Niccolo di Liberatore, known also as Niccolo da Foligno 
or Niccolo Alunno. This painter lived from 1430 to 1500. 
He was a pupil of Benozzo Gozzoli and a fellow-student 
with Bonfigli (142 5-1 496). 

Niccolo paints as a man of eager temperament and strong 
emotion. He does not reach any elevated range of thought 
or feeling, but his appeal is of a more fundamental kind than 
is usual among Umbrian masters of the fifteenth century. 
The altar-piece is an immense picture built up of many 
pieces, set in a gorgeous framing. The central scene is 
the Adoration of the Infant. The figure of the Virgin is 
natural and pleasing. In the middle distance the shepherds 
hurry along to join the group, and in the background are 
the three kings, riding through a formal landscape. Above 
this part of the picture Christ rises from the tomb. The 
witnesses of these mysteries are, to the left, SS. Sebastian 
and Nicholas, Sta. Chiara and St. John the Baptist, a Pope, 
and another saint. To the right, SS. Michael and John the 



368 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

Evangelist, St. Jerome, and perhaps St. Nicholas of Tolen- 
tino, and two others, probably bishops. 

In the same church is another picture by Niccolo. In 
the upper part Christ crowns Madonna. They are sur- 
rounded by a formal and ungraceful glory of cherubs and 
child-angels. St. Anthony and S. Bernardino of Siena look 
up in adoring wonder. In the background is an Umbrian 
landscape, more formal and less beautiful than those of 
Perugino. 

In the Church of Sta. Maria Infra Portas there are 
remains of a number of frescoes, many of them attributed 
to Mezzastris. The general aspect of the church is pleasant 
and the porch is picturesque. 

The Duomo. The doorway leading into the northern 
transept of the Duomo is of red marble, with lions at the 
foot of the jambs. Round the arch are sculptured the signs 
of the Zodiac (not in their right order), and the four symbols 
of the Evangelists. 

There is a crypt of unusual size under the nave. 

The Benedictine Abbey of Sasso Vivo lies among the 
hills about one and a half hours from Foligno. The excursion 
is well worth the time involved. Inquiry should be made 
in Foligno about the key of the church. For about three- 
quarters of an hour it is possible to follow a rough road in 
a carriage. After that there is a good hill path, and in 
about forty minutes the monastery is reached. The lower 
slopes are covered with olives, and as the path winds up the 
mountain side it is shaded in many places by fine oak trees. 
From the projecting spur upon which the Abbey stands 
there is a magnificent view. The building is impressive. 
At one end rises the church, with a low campanile, and from 
it stretches a long and almost unbroken curtain of masonry, 
behind which lie the conventual buildings. The ground on 
three sides falls steeply to the torrent far below. The build- 
ings are now used by a farmer, and within the gates there 
is a scene of miserable squalor. The church and cloister, 
however, remain unharmed, and it is the latter which forms 
the interest of the place. \t causes a shock of surprise after 



FOLIGNO 369 

climbing about the neglected and ruinous building used for 
the farm stock to enter suddenly into a small cloister perfect 
in every particular. 

The refined beauty of the colonnade and the grace of the 
whole design at once remind the traveller of the cloister of 
St. John Lateran at Rome upon which it is modelled. The 
arches rest on pairs of small columns. The capitals are 
bell-shaped, and the lines of the cornice are relieved by 
mosaics worked in the style of the Cosmati. The cornice, 
indeed, is a marvel of beauty. It is a series of simple 
mouldings and arcadings, executed in yellow sandstone, 
terra-cotta, and delicately tinted marble. The simplicity of 
design, the air of refinement and proportion, the beauty of 
colour, and the subtle sense of harmony, which is classical 
in the best sense of the word, make of this quiet cloister 
a most perfect and lovely picture. The cloister was con- 
structed in the early part of the thirteenth century. 

TREVI 

Trevi, the ancient Trebia, was famed as the place which 
supplied the great beams for the roofs of the Roman basili- 
cas. It is probable that the name contains an allusion to the 
wood (trades), used for this purpose. 

From the railway station it takes about three-quarters of 
an hour to drive up the steep hill to the town. The road 
passes the Church of Sta. Maria delle Lagrime. In the 
left transept of this church is an Entombment by Lo 
Spagna. It is a mannered and poor piece of work. Its 
principal interest, indeed, is that we can gauge the difference 
between Perugino and his disciple by a comparison with 
the " Adoration of the Magi " painted on the other side of 
the church. Perugino painted this picture, it is said, when 
he was about seventy-five years old. It shows in a most 
striking way the unquestionable superiority of the master. 
It is just such a composition as he had often painted before ; 
through the open stable we see a beautiful Umbrian land- 
scape : horsemen move about, shepherds tend their sheep, 

2 A 



370 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

and in the foreground Madonna with a grave face, broad' 
and open, sits with the Child on her knee, while the king 
kneels and presents his gift. 

The Duomo is dedicated in the name of S. Emiliano, the 
patron and bishop of the town, who was martyred under 
Diocletian. In the lunette above the door is the figure of 
the Saint holding his pastoral staff. Two lions crouch at 
his feet in submission. In the interior there are three ornate 
altar pieces by Rocco da Vicenza of the sixteenth century.. 

In the small Pinacoteca is a Coronation of the Virgin, 
attributed to Lo Spagna ; a triptych of the fourteenth cen- 
tury in the style of the Florentine school, and several other 
unimportant pictures. 

From the gate of the town nearest to Foligno a pretty 
road shaded with trees leads to the Convent of S. 
Martino. 

Over the door of the church there is a picture of Madonna 
and Child with two adoring angels, by Tibero d'Assisi. 

Within the church and facing the visitor there is, to the 
right (by a painter of the school of Foligno), Madonna 
adoring the Child ; St. Francis to the left, and St. Anthony of 
Padua to the right. To the left, by Lo Spagna, St. Martin 
divides his robe with the beggar. St. Martin has a trifling 
face ; the beggar, on the other hand, has a truly profes- 
sional air. 

In a chapel to the left of the church, and separate from 
it, Lo Spagna has painted a large picture of the Assumption 
of the Virgin. The mandorla in which Madonna is carried 
up is formed of cherub heads, mechanically treated and 
crudely coloured. To the left there are SS. John the Bap- 
tist and Jerome ; to the right SS. Francis and Anthony of 
Padua, who carries a flame in his hand. The work is dated 
1512. 

SPOLETO 

Note upon the History and Monuments 

The situation of Spoletp is one of great beauty. The 
ancient city stands upon a hill, with a background of higher 



SPOLETO 371 

peaks. It commands a wide view over the plain, with the 
distant towns of Trevi, Foligno, Spello, and Assisi forming 
white spots upon the blue hillsides to the right, and further 
still the outline of Perugia against the sky, to the left. 

A magnificent gorge, formed by the river Tessino, divides 
the town from the steep sides of Monte Luco, which are 
covered with ilex trees. 

The history of Spoleto is as varied and picturesque as her 
scenery. The part which she has played has been the re- 
sult of her geographical position in relation to Rome. 
In a commanding situation, "close to the Flaminian Way, 
Spoleto has been the coveted possession both of the great 
Republic and of her enemies. 

A Roman colony was planted here in 240 B.C., and gave 
valuable assistance about twenty years later, when Hanni- 
bal and his Carthaginian forces, having defeated the Romans 
at the Lake of Trasimeno, attacked Spoleto on his way to 
the south. The inhabitants drove him back from their gates, 
and, instead of continuing his route to Rome, he turned 
aside and went into the northern part of Apulia. A gate- 
way of the Roman period, which may be passed on the way 
from the station by making a short detour on foot, is known 
as the Porta d'Annibale, or Porta della Fuga, and has a 
Latin inscription referring to the event. 

There are several other remains of Roman times in the 
town. In the Via di Druso, a street opening out of the 
Piazza del Mercato, there is a plain, heavy arch, embedded 
for the most part in the roadway and adjoining houses. On 
it is a dedication to Germanicus and Drusus, the son and 
the adopted son of Tiberius. 

The Municipio stands on the remains of a Roman house, 
said to have been that in which the mother of Vespasian 
lived. Traces of a Roman theatre also have been dis- 
covered in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele. 

During the centuries of invasion, when Ostrogoths, Lom- 
bards, and Franks overran the country, Spoleto continued 
to be a place of importance. Its position was strengthened 
by the fortifications built by Theodoric the Goth. 



372 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

La E-occa, the fortress, now used as a prison, is an im- 
posing building rising above the town. The construction 
was rebuilt in the fourteenth century by Cardinal Albornoz. 

During the Lombard occupation Spoleto became the seat 
of one of the duchies into which the conquered territory of 
Italy was divided. The dukes maintained an independent 
position, extending their domains by conquest, and making 
treaties on their own account with other Powers. 

The long reign of Theudelap, from 60 1 to 653, greatly 
increased the strength and independence of the duchy. This 
duke is said to have been the builder of the Duomo, and 
of the magnificent aqueduct, now called the Ponte delle 
Torri, which not only brings water into the town from 
Monte Luco, but provides a footway across the ravine. The 
upper part of the present structure, with pointed arches, is 
work of the fourteenth century. 

The Dukes of Spoleto were the builders and supporters 
of many abbeys and monasteries in the neighbourhood. The 
hill, Monte Luco, overlooking the city, became renowned 
also as a spiritual stronghold ; for, in about the year 550, a 
Syrian pilgrim of the name of Isaac, fleeing from Rome, 
then in the hands of the barbarians, took refuge in Spoleto. 
It is said that one day he remained so long in prayer in the 
church that he was rudely turned out by one of the atten- 
dants. He then determined to seek God no longer in the 
midst of the haunts of men, but in solitude. 

He established himself as a hermit among the ilex groves 
on the slopes of Monte Luco, and there passed a life of 
contemplation. His example was followed by others. 
Monte Luco became another Thebaid, and the woods were 
crowded with little huts where the holy men spent their 
days in social solitariness. 

A winding path through the wood leads up the slopes to 
a small Franciscan convent. The path lies mostly in shadow 
under the closely growing ilex trees, but ferns and flowers 
grow freely by the wayside, and every here and there 
between the branches there is a vision of the city and the 
plain below and of the surrounding hills. It would be 



SPOLETO 373 

difficult to find a more fit place for the pursuit of the con- 
templative life. 

Under Frankish rule the territory was governed by a 
succession of dukes nominated by the Emperor. 

When the Karling empire broke up at the end of the 
ninth century Duke Guido III., as a descendant of the 
imperial house, was raised to the throne. He reigned only 
for a few months and was succeeded by his son Lambert, 
who died while still a youth in 898. 

In 1 1 55 the city of Spoleto was devastated by the Em- 
peror Frederick Barbarossa. The inhabitants had refused to 
pay the imperial tax laid upon them, and as a punishment 
the city was besieged by the Emperor and laid waste with 
fire and sword. Many of the churches were barbarously 
destroyed, and the citizens who escaped hid themselves in 
the woods of Monte Luco. 

In 1 198 the March of Spoleto was conquered by Pope 
Innocent III., and the series of German feudal lords came 
to an end with Conrad of Swabia. 

In the middle of the fourteenth century, when the legate 
Albornoz was engaged in re-establishing papal authority in 
Central Italy, he took possession of Spoleto, and judging its 
situation to be important for his purpose, he restored and 
strengthened the fortress. 

From this time onwards La Rocca remained in the pos- 
session Of the Popes. Calixtus III., in 1456, gave the city 
of Spoleto, with the title of Duke, to his nephew Pier Luigi 
Borgia ; and Alexander VI., in 1499, made his daughter, 
Lucrezia Borgia, governor of the town. 

The new governor travelled from Rome with a sumptuous 
retinue. She rode into Spoleto clothed in red and gold, 
sitting on a white mule, and was welcomed with every sign 
of rejoicing by the inhabitants. 

In 1798 Spoleto was occupied by the French Republican 
troops^ and a picture by Lo Spagna which was in the 
fortress, and is now preserved in the Municipio, is said to 
have been wilfully damaged by a French soldier's bayonet. 

The papal troops in i860 made a long and gallant resist- 



374 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

ance in the town under the leadership of an Irishman, Major 
O'Reilly. On the 27th of September the city was taken by 
the Piedmontese soldiers. 



The Duomo 

The Cathedral of Sta. Maria Assunta is said to have been 
founded in the seventh century by the Lombard Duke, 
Theudelap. The church became the Duomo in 1067, and 
was much destroyed in 1155 when Barbarossa laid waste 
the city. The present construction dates from the twelfth 
century. It is a fine and characteristic example of the 
Romanesque style. 

The Renaissance portico covering the entrance was 
added in 1491. The facade therefore affords an interesting 
contrast between the characteristics of two styles of archi- 
tecture — the Romanesque and the Renaissance. 

The general effect of the building above the portico is 
picturesque and irregular. The mosaic, the circular win- 
dows, and the row of shallow arcades are the only features 
which break the spacious masses of wall. The warm tones 
of the masonry and the brilliant colours of the mosaic 
combine well together, and the impression given by the 
whole is imposing, picturesque, and somewhat barbarously 
magnificent. 

On the other hand the Renaissance Portico is severely 
elegant. Everything is uniform, regulated, and carefully 
proportioned. A delicate frieze of sculpture runs along the 
top of the round arches, and the spandrels are filled with 
marble disks of subdued colours. At each end of the por- 
tico is a small pulpit of great simplicity and beauty. 

The Mosaic. An inscription at the bottom of the picture 
gives the name of the artist, Doctor Solsernus, with the 
qualification " summits in arte modernus" and the date 1207, 
also the names of several assistants. 

The work is Byzantine in character. The drapery is 
arranged in the conventional manner, and the folds are 
outlined with gold. But if w^ compare the head of Christ 



SPOLETO 375 

with the representation in the dome of the Florence Bap- 
tistery, it will be seen that Solsernus had made considerable 
advance towards a style freer and less ascetic in character. 
The mosaic has been restored. 

Christ is seated upon a throne, with the Virgin on the left 
and St. John the Evangelist on the right. On the book held 
by the central figure are the words, " I am the Light of the 
World." 

The round window below the mosaic has the four sym- 
bols of the Evangelists carved in high relief at the four 
corners. The circle of the window stands for a figure of 
the globe of the World, throughout which the Light of the 
Gospel was carried by the Evangelists. 

The reasons popularly given for the attribution of the 
signs to the Evangelists are as follow : — 

St. Luke in his gospel dwells more than the other writers 
upon the priestly lineage of Christ, and he begins his nar- 
rative with the priesthood of Zachariah ; therefore he is 
represented by the OX, the principal victim used in the 
sacrifices of the priests. 

St. Matthew relates the generation of Christ as a man. 
His gospel relates to the humanity of the Saviour. He is 
therefore depicted with the face of a man. 

St. Mark begins with the voice of one crying in the 
wilderness. Now the voice in the wilderness is that of a 
lion. Hence this animal is fitly chosen for his symbol. 

St. John, more than the other writers, contemplates the 
Light Eternal, and is therefore figured by the Eagle, which 
alone of all the birds can gaze at the sun. 

The two human figures and the three pillars that support 
the circle of the window have no doubt some symbolical 
significance, and may be compared with the three similar 
figures under the large window of the Duomo at Assisi. 

Before entering the church some fragments of marble 
reliefs, built into the walls within the portico, should be 
noticed. 

There are several panels of Romanesque workmanship, 
and high up on the side wall (to the left of the central door) 



376 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

are some graceful designs of Italo-Byzantine style. One 
fragment in delicate relief represents a stag on either side 
of a vase. 

The lintel and jambs of the central door are covered 
with sculpture in relief. The name of the sculptor, Gre- 
gorius Melioranzius, is carved in the middle of the left jamb. 

The design is graceful, and many of the figures are in- 
troduced very ingeniously into the circles formed by the 
branches, but the work does not show the same high 
qualities as the similar scroll round the doorway of S. 
Pietro. 

Such designs as these are frequently found on the jambs 
and lintels of Romanesque doorways. The main theme is 
generally a conventionalised vine bearing grapes. Many 
figures of men and animals are found among the branches, 
eating the leaves or gathering the fruit. The vine is the 
Church, which provides spiritual nourishment and safety for 
the healing of the nations. 

The interior was restored in the seventeenth century, 
and the chief object of interest now is the series of frescoes 
by Filippo Lippi, the pupil of Lorenzo Monaco, and the 
follower of Masaccio. 

This artist came to Spoleto towards the end of his life 
and painted a series of pictures of the history of the Virgin 
in the apsis. The work left unfinished by Fra Filippo, who 
died in Spoleto in 1469, was completed by Fra Diamante, 
one of his disciples. The paintings are worthy of careful 
study, for although they are grievously damaged, it is pos- 
sible to appreciate in them the forces which were moving 
the Florentine artists of the fifteenth century. 

The semi-dome is filled with the Coronation of the Virgin, 
and below are three scenes : the Annunciation (to the left), 
the Death of the Virgin (in the centre), and the Nativity (to 
the right). 

The Annunciation. The Virgin has a keen, intelligent 
expression, and does not suggest an embodiment of meek 
devoutness. She looks down and twists her fingers together 
in perplexity. Rays from the vFather Eternal fall upon her 



SPOLETO 377 

through the window. The figures of the Angel and of Mary 
are not impressive presentments of the Divine mystery in 
which they are concerned. 

The Nativity. Little more than a shadow remains of a 
magnificent composition. There are no accessories intro- 
duced, and nothing to distract the mind from the central 
incident. The picture is a fine example of the subtle power 
of Fra Filippo. 

The Death of the Virgin. The scene is laid on a plat- 
form of rocks. To the left is a steep hill with cornices 
running round it, like Dante's description of the Mountain 
of Purgatory. 

The figure of Christ in a " mandorla " carrying the soul of 
His Mother is almost effaced. St. Thomas, kneeling as he 
receives the girdle, can just be distinguished. 

The Coronation of the Virgin in the semi-dome. 

Much of the landscape background has disappeared, and 
some of the colours have become very harsh. 

Mary is crowned, not by the Son, but by the Father, who 
is seated upon a throne and wears a magnificent tiara. The 
figures are placed in an iris-coloured halo studded with stars. 
Above the rainbow is a great light representing the Sun of 
Righteousness, while the earthly sun and moon appear under 
the feet of the principal figures. 

Round about is a company of angels, who sing, dance, 
and play upon musical instruments. Some hand flowers to 
the others. 

Beneath the angels are the righteous men and women of 
the Old Testament. 

Beginning on the right, the names of the women printed 
below them are as follows : Eve, the sibyl Tiburtina, Rachel, 
Bathsheba, Leah, the sibyl Erythrasa, Esther, and one 
whose name is unrecognisable. The men are as follows 
(beginning in the centre) : Adam, John the Baptist, Daniel, 
Elias (?), Micah, Hosea (?), Amos. 

The scene is partly of historical and partly of a devotional 
character. It may be considered as the glorification of the 
Virgin, following her death and burial. With the introduc- 



378 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

tion of the Prophets and sibyls it becomes also a devotional 
picture, signifying the triumph of the spiritual Church typi- 
fied by the Virgin. The kneeling witnesses who take part 
in the mystery are types afforded by the old dispensation 
significant of the future Church. 

Adam and Eve, the origin of the human race, are those 
by whom death and sin entered into the world, thus necessi- 
tating the Incarnation. The Virgin is often regarded as 
the second Eve, bringing life to the world, through obe- 
dience, as the first Eve brought death through disobe- 
dience. 

Bathsheba is a type of Mary, because she sat upon a 
throne on the right hand of her son. Esther, who inter- 
ceded for her people before the king, is a figure of the 
Virgin herself — the intercessor for the faithful. 

The sibyl Erythraea generally holds a white rose, having 
predicted the Annunciation. The sibyl Tiburtina pointed 
out the vision of the Virgin and Child to the Emperor Augus- 
tus, warning him that a Hebrew child should be born who 
should rule over the gods themselves. 

At the entrance to the chapel {left of the choir) is the 
grave of the artist Filippo Lippi, who died in 1469. The 
tomb was erected by Lorenzo de' Medici, and the inscrip- 
tion by Politian may be roughly translated : " Here now, I, 
Philipus, lie buried, the ornament of painting, the charm 
of whose wonderful hand every one knew. I, the painter, 
could with my hand give life to the colours, so that the be- 
holder thinks that he hears them speak. Nature even is 
astonished, and copies my figures ; and she confesses to me 
that I, as she, have power to create." 

On the floor, opposite, is a fine sepulchral stone to a 
member of the Orsini family, dated 1581. 

In the Winter Choir is a picture by Lo Spagna (painting 
1 500-1 528, a pupil of Perugino, and influenced by Raphael). 
The subject is the Madonna and Child, with Saints. 

In the first chapel to the right are some much damaged 
frescoes by Pinturicchio. 

v 



SPOLETO 379 

The Baptistery 

The Baptistery is a small building, square in plan, entered 
from the porch of the church. 

In early times separate buildings were raised for the ad- 
ministration of baptism, which only took place twice in the 
year. It was convenient, also, to have a separate building, 
as unbaptized persons were not permitted to be present 
at the celebration of the mysteries. 

The roof and walls are covered with frescoes, which are 
of no value as works of art, but are worth notice on account 
of the scheme of ideas represented. 

In the vault facing the door is Adam, holding an apple, 
significant of the fall into sin. Two small scenes at the 
sides represent the creation of the body and soul of Adam. 

In the vault to the left, man makes his first step to re- 
covery under the Old Law administered by the High Priest. 
The small pictures represent the Burning Bush and the 
Salvation of the Israelites at the Red Sea. 

The vault opposite is that of the New Law. The small 
pictures represent the release of the Israelites by the Egyp- 
tians, and the Sacrifice of Isaac, typical of escape from 
the bondage of the Old Law, and of the sacrifice that was to 
make all men free. In the centre a figure stands at the 
altar, on which is bread and wine, the source of strength 
to believers, and the reward of faith. 

The vault over the entrance door shows a man clinging to 
the Vine of the Lord, the safety which he finds in it is typi- 
fied in the two small pictures of Noah and his family enter- 
ing the Ark, and the Ark floating on the waters. Below is 
the Ascension of Elijah, pointing to the ultimate hope of 
mankind. 

On the wall opposite the entrance is a large Crucifixion, 
with the Madonna and the twelve Apostles. The Death on 
the Cross recalls the saying of St. Paul, that as we are buried 
with Christ through baptism, like Him we shall be raised up 
from the dead and walk in the newness of life. 

The font has sculptured upon it the Nativity, the Presen- 



380 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

tation, the Adoration, the Circumcision, the Flight into 
Egypt, Christ among the Doctors, the Baptism, and the 
Miracle at Cana. 

The Church of S. Pietro 

This ancient church outside of the city is one of the most 
striking of the Romanesque buildings in Italy. 

It has a magnificent situation on the slope of the hill, 
with a little piazza in front, which is reached by a long flight 
of steps. Behind rise the wooded heights of Monte Luco, 
and in front is a wide view over the city and the plain to 
the hills in the background. The church was originally 
founded in the fifth century, and served as the cathedral of 
Spoleto until 1067. When the town was attacked and 
burned by Frederick Barbarossa in the middle of the twelfth 
century, this isolated building was greatly damaged. 

The style and date of the sculpture. The earliest 
work of all upon the church is an archaic relief of St. 
Michael killing the dragon, above the side door to the left. 
Some fragments above the door of entrance to the house 
of the Priore (oil the right) are apparently works of the 
same date. 

Round the central door there are two systems of sculp- 
ture. One series, connected with the jambs and lintel, is 
distinguished by unusual grace and refinement. The treat- 
ment and detail suggest Byzantine influence. 

To right and left of this highly finished sculpture there is 
another series totally different in character. The style and 
the material are both rude, in comparison. This work is 
characterised by vigour and simplicity. It is the sculpture 
of men who have much to say with little technical power of 
expression. 

The subject of the reliefs. There is no connected or 
elaborate system of ideas expressed by the reliefs on the 
facade as a whole. 

The general theme is the way of the soul through the 
dangers and temptations of this life, and the assistance 
which the penitent may obtain from St. Peter in order to 



SPOLBTO 381 

escape from eternal punishment, and attain to everlasting 
blessedness. 

We begin with the reliefs round the central door. On 
the jambs and lintel is a conventionalised Vine. This 
vine has the cross placed among its branches, and is a 
symbol of the Church of Christ upon earth. 

The figures of animals which divide the geometrical 
designs are identical in subject upon the two sides. 

In the lowest panels is a pair of oxen wearing the yoke, 
followed by a man. 

This is the Romanesque artist's way of showing us how 
man began his spiritual career under the yoke of the Law. 
It is the yoke from which the Gospel made man free. 

In the centre is a stag killing a serpent, significant of 
the baptized Christian overcoming the vices which attack 
him. When the Law had done its work, man entered upon 
a positive state, and, with the help of grace, struggled with 
the sins which beset him. 

At the top is a peacock eating grapes, a figure of the soul 
which has attained to the blessedness of everlasting life. 

The panels thus represent the three periods into which 
the life of the human race may be divided : (1) The reign 
of Law, when man lived in servile obedience ; (2) The 
reign of Grace, when man lives in filial obedience in faith ; 
(3) The reign of Love, when man lives in the freedom of 
the spirit. 

The stag is a biblical figure for the Christian thirsting for 
grace (Psalm xlii.), and, according to the natural historians 
of the time, the stag was the great enemy of serpents. 

The peacock was used as an emblem of immortality on 
account of the beauty of its feathers renewed every year, 
and because of the supposed incorruptibility of its flesh. 

Turning now to the panels in high relief oxv the walls at 
each side, the subjects illustrated are the temptations 
and sins which beset the pilgrim on his way through life, 
and the power of St. Peter in absolving the penitent and 
securing his soul from hell. 

We begin with the top panel on the right. Nearest to 



382 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

the central door Christ prepares to wash the feet of St. 
Peter, who protests, drawing his feet under him. Then the 
disciple, made conscious of his error, lays his hand upon 
his head, saying, " Not my feet only." 

The panel below this represents the calling of Peter and 
Andrew. The incident is told with the utmost simplicity 
and directness. 

The two corresponding panels at the top, on the opposite 
side of the door, illustrate the office of St. Peter under the 
dramatic form of a contrast drawn between the death of 
the penitent and the death of the sinner. 

In the highest panel, the penitent lies peacefully upon his 
bed. At his head stands St. Peter with the key of absolu- 
tion, and holding a rope which he has loosed from off the 
penitent. The rope signifies the bondage of sin. At the 
foot of the bed the soul of the dead man is weighed in the 
balance. On one side is the guardian angel with a scroll 
inscribed with his good deeds, on the other side is a devil 
who tries to pull the scale to his side. He has a scroll upon 
which are the words, " Doleo quia non est meus " (I grieve 
because he is not mine). Behind the devil, another image of 
St. Peter presides over the judgment ; he is seated upon a 
throne and holds a key. 

In the scene below is the deathbed of the sinner, whose 
arms are bound with the bonds of unabsolved sins. At the 
foot of the bed the balance falls to the side of the devils, 
who seize their prey. To the right the guardian angel flees 
away with an eloquent gesture ; to the left the mouth of 
hell is represented as a pot into which the condemned are 
thrown head foremost. 

In the six lower panels (three on each side), the dangers 
of Pride, and the nature of the cunning snares laid by the 
devil to deceive man, are shown by means of allegories and 
fables. These sculptures belong to the class of moral ex- 
amples used by the popular preachers in their sermons. On 
the left are three examples drawn from the history of the 
lion, inculcating the merits of Humility and the dangers of 
Pride. x 



SPOLETO 383 

The highest of the three represents a man armed with an 
axe about to slay a lion, whose forepaws are caught in the 
cleft of a tree-trunk. The writers do not know of any other 
representation of this incident in sculpture, nor have they 
found it used as an " exemplum " in the popular collections. 
Like the other panels, it may be a warning against pre- 
sumption, as the over-confident lion, trusting in his strength, 
falls a victim to the superior cunning of the man. The 
scenes below illustrate how the clement lion spares the 
humble suppliant who begs for mercy, while he shows him- 
self without pity for the man who comes before him boldly, 
trusting in his own strength and in his weapons. 

The lion in this character was held to be an image of the 
Church, merciful to the penitent, but without pity for the 
proud and heretical. 

The panels on the other side, to the right, illustrate the 
cunning snares laid for man by his arch-enemy the devil. 

In the third scene from the top (under the Calling of Peter 
and Andrew), is the story of how the fox secures his prey 
by shamming death. 

The fox lies on his back, apparently dead, but the sculptor 
has given an expression of sly cunning to the animal's open 
mouth and watchful eye. The birds stand on little mounds, 
and stretch out their foolish necks towards their foe, whose 
feet are already drawn up ready to spring. The moral drawn 
by the Bestiaries is that when the devil has lured people into 
sin, he springs up like the fox, and thrusts them into hell. 

Below this, the hypocritical character of the great de- 
ceiver is illustrated by the story of the Wolf-scholar. The 
wolf, anxious for an opportunity to capture a sheep, feigns 
penitence and . conversion. He has put on the scholar's 
hood, and holds his lesson -book; but, according to the 
fable, he had only reached the letter D of the alphabet 
when he made off with one of his fellow-students. Finally, 
in the lowest panel, we see the triumph of good over evil. 
The dragon, typical of deceit and craftiness, is met and 
routed by the vigilant Christian, made as strong and cou- 
rageous as a lion with the help of Grace. 



384 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

Palazzo Pubblico. 

In the Palazzo Pubblico there are several ancient inscrip- 
tions, fragments of sculpture, and a small Pinacoteca. 

Pinacoteca. The collection is not well arranged, and at 
present the pictures cannot be seen to advantage. Room 
III. has a detached fresco from La Rocca, by Lo Spagna, 
which gives a favourable idea of the ability of the artist. 
The picture was damaged by the French soldiers in 1799. 
In the centre, Madonna and Child ; on the left, St. Anthony 
of Padua and St. Jerome ; on the right, St. Catherine of 
Alexandria and S. Brizio. This is a quiet and unaffected 
picture of pleasing colour. Another fresco, in Room IV., 
dated 1530, represents Madonna and Child with angels 
above in adoration. To the left is a Bishop, perhaps S. 
Biagio, and the right, S. Lorenzo. There are also a number 
of detached frescoes from the Church of S. Niccolo in Spo- 
leto. They are not of much importance, and have been 
badly damaged. In a lunette there is the Death of the 
Virgin, and two panels representing the Annunciation. A 
large panel with a figure of the Virgin is signed Bernardino 
Campilio (a native of Spoleto), and is dated 1502. Another 
picture of the Madonna is signed by Antonello da Messina. 

There are also remains of various altar-pieces, and some 
choral books. 

On the wall of the staircase are interesting fragments of 
sculpture. 

(1.) A Tympanum from S. Niccolo, with the Cross en- 
twined among vine branches. 

(2.) A series of small sculptures representing the martyr- 
dom of S. Brizio, the first Bishop of Spoleto, and called the 
Apostle of Umbria. 

In the first scene, (a) the King sitting on his throne, con^ 
demns the Bishop. 

(b) The Bishop is bound to a cross, and delivered by an 
angel. 

(c) The Bishop is given to wild beasts, and they make 
obeisance before him. 

{d) The Bishop is beheadecl. 



SPOLETO 385 

{e) Christ appears in blessing. 

On the same wall there are several tabernacles of Renais- 
sance design, and fragments of Byzantine sculpture repre- 
senting birds feeding upon grapes. 

A mosaic pavement of the Roman period was discovered 
below the site of the Municipal building, and it is said that 
the Roman house, of which it formed a part, belonged to the 
mother of Vespasian. 

Other Churches in Spoleto 

Near to the Piazza del Mercato is the subterranean 
Church of S. Ansano. This small building, dedicated in 
the name of S. Ansano, the martyr and patron of Assisi and 
Siena, is said to have been originally dedicated to St. Isaac, 
the hermit of Monte Luco. The roof rests upon four columns, 
and on the walls are damaged frescoes, probably of the 
eleventh century. In the apse is the Virgin and Child, 
with the Sacrifice of Isaac below. On the wall, to the left 
of the entrance, are two frescoes, one a scene of Martyrdom, 
the other Christ's meal with the disciples. The pieces of 
bread are marked with a cross, as is the custom in the paint- 
ings of the catacombs. 

The Church of S. Agostino del Crocefisso, formerly S. 
Salvadore, is some distance without the gates, in the modern 
Campo Santo. It is said to have been built upon the site 
of a Roman temple, in the fifth or sixth century. 

There are the remains of three Roman doorways, and the 
architectural features of the facade are thoroughly classical 
in style. The sculptured leaves and crosses upon the lintels 
and the mouldings of the windows and doors are extremely 
delicate and beautiful. In the interior there are a number 
of ancient columns of different lengths of various materials 
and of all styles. In some cases the base of the classical 
pillars has been used as a capital. The effect of the interior 
on the whole is extremely picturesque. The pillars of the 
crossing support an entablature of classical design. 

On the hills above S. Pietro is the small Romanesque 

2 B 



386 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

Church of S. Giuliano, now desecrated. The entrance 
door has sculptures on the jamb of a symbolical character. 

Animals such as the stag, the lamb, and the hare feed 
upon the leaves of the vine. Peacocks and other birds eat 
the grapes. 

The Sign of the Cross appears among the branches, and 
the whole design is a figure of the Church with its Sacra- 
ments. 

In the interior, the semi-dome and apse are painted with 
mediocre frescoes of the fourteenth century. The crypt is 
sustained by pillars, some of which have the symbol of the 
Lamb in an aureole. 

The Church of S. Giacomo 
About four miles from Spoleto, on the road to Trevi, is 
the Church of S. Giacomo, with frescoes by Lo Spagna. 

In the semi-dome of the choir, in the upper part, is the 
Coronation of the Virgin, based on the design of Fra 
Filippo Lippi in the Duomo at Spoleto. Madonna wears 
a white and golden robe as at Spoleto. There are the 
same ranks of men and women of the Old Dispensation ; 
but the faces are commonplace and heavy, and the com- 
plexions are heightened by obvious patches of red. On the 
wall over the semi-dome there is, on one side, the angel 
Gabriel, and on the other the Virgin. Over the niche to the 
left, Madonna sits with the Child, attended by angels ; over 
the niche to the right, she rises up to heaven. The whole 
is a short history of the place of Madonna in the scheme 
of human salvation. In the lower part of the semi-dome 
is a large figure of St. James the Great. At each side 
is the history of a miracle worked by him. A man and his 
wife and their son were on pilgrimage to the shrine of St. 
James at Compostella, when the son was wrongfully accused 
of theft by an innkeeper. The young man was condemned 
and hanged. The parents fulfilled their vows and visited 
the shrine. On their return to the place where their son 
had suffered, they found the youth still alive, for St. James 
had supported him, as we see in the fresco to the left. The 



SPOLETO 387 

judge refuses to believe in the miracle, declaring that the 
roasted fowls before him are as much alive as the young 
man. Whereupon the birds immediately rose up in the 
dish. This scene is on the right of the figure of St. James. 
In the niche to the left are SS. Fabriano, Sebastiano, and 
Rocco. In the niche to the right are SS. Peter, Anthony 
the abbot, and St. Bartholomew. The pillars which separate 
the apsis from the niches have the figures of St. Lucy (left), 
and Sta. Apollonia. The conjunction of St. Sebastian and 
S. Rocco point to the probability that the picture may have 
been connected with some visitation of plague. 

The whole series of paintings are heavy and uninspired. 
So far as the mere outline of the design of the coronation, 
there is an evident intention to found upon the fresco of 
Fra Filippo Lippi ; but both the power and the imagination 
of the Florentine are lacking. The common, unrefined, and 
weak forms can have no place beside the vigorous work 
in the Duomo of Spoleto. (For an opinion opposed to 
this see "Renaissance in Italian Art," part hi. p. 131, by 
Mr. Selwyn Brinton.) 



In the basement of the National Gallery there are a num- 
ber of copies of frescoes which were made for the Arundel 
Society, with some of the reproductions from them. Repre- 
sentations of the following pictures may be seen : — 

From Perugia — The Transfiguration from the Sala del 
Cambio. 

From Assisi — Many of the Old Testament scenes and 
New Testament scenes from the nave of the upper church 
of S. Francesco. Many of the scenes from the life of St. 
Francis in the nave of the upper church. 

From the Lower Church of S. Francesco — Frescoes from 
the northern and southern transepts ; from the Chapel of the 
Magdalene, and from the Chapel of St. Martin. 

From the Cappella della Madonna di S. Brizio, in the 
Duomo of Orvieto — The large fresco showing the Saints 
crowned in Paradise. 

From Panicale — The fresco of St. Sebastian. 



388 THE UMBRIAN TOWNS 

From Montefalco — Several scenes from the life of St. 
Francis, and a large Altarpiece by Benozzo Gozzoli. 

From Spello — The Sposalizio in S. Girolamo. 

In the South Kensington Museum there is a model of 
the Sala del Cambio at Perugia. 



Photographs by Messrs. Alinari, Florence 

The following list indicates the distinguishing number of 
the photographs of some of the most interesting subjects in 
Messrs. Alinari's collection, so far as it relates to Umbria. 
If these numbers are used for ordering care should be taken 
to describe the subject as well as to give the number, so 
that annoyance from accidental error or misunderstanding 
may be avoided. 

Perugia — Picture Gallery. — Cappella dei Bonfigli, Con- 
secration of St. Louis, 5620 ; Gothic Attack on Perugia, 
5623 ; Translation of the Body of S. Ercolano, 5624 ; Second 
Translation, 5625. 

Descent of Holy Spirit, Taddeo Bartolo, No. 10, Sala 
IV., 5602 ; Madonna and Child, &c, by Giov. Boccati, No. 
19, Sala VI., 5616. Pictures by Bonfigli : Madonna and 
Child, No. 13, Sala VI., 5641 ; Adoration of the Magi, 
No. 10, Sala VI., 5637 ; Madonna and Child, No. 4, Sala 
VII., 5627 ; Angels, Nos. 7 and 9, Sala VII., 5631 ; Ber- 
nardino di Mariotto, No. 20, Sala VII., 5607. Fiorenzo di 
Lorenzo : Nativity, No. 2, Sala VIII., 5655 ; Marriage of 
St. Catherine, No. 1, Sala VIII., 5650; Madonna and 
Child, No. 16, Cabinet of Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, 5654. Peru- 
gino : Nativity, No. 31, Sala XIII., 5707. Domenico 
Alfani : Holy Family, No. 36, Sala XI 1 1., 5597. 

Sala del Cambio — Frescoes by Perugino and assistants. — 
Roof pictures : 5530-5541 ; Cato, 5542 ; Prudence and 
Justice, 5543; Fortitude and Temperance, 5546; Nativity, 
5560; Transfiguration, 5553 ; Prophets and Sibyls, 5563. 

Chapel of the. Ca?nbio. — 5574-5584. S. Bernardino », 
sculpture by Agostino di Duccio, fagade, 4986 ; figure of 
S. Bernardino, 4987 ; Miracles, &c, 4992, 4994, 4997, 4998 ; 



LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS 389 

Angels and Virtues, 4999-5010 ; general view of the 
Fountain, 5032; Palazzo Pubblico, 5041 ; Doorway of Palazzo 
Pubblico, 5043 ; Arco di Agosto, 5052. Duomo — Madonna 
and Child, &c, by Signorelli, 5516; Church of S. Pietro, 
general view of the interior, 5062 ; Adoration of the Magi, 
by Eusebio di S. Giorgio, 5715 ; Pieta, by Benedetto Bon- 
figli, 5713. Tomb of Benedict XL in S. Domenico, 501 1 ; 
detail of the Figure, 5013. 

Assisi — Upper Church of Francesco. — Doctors on the 
Roof, 5234-5237 ; Christ and Madonna, SS. Francis and 
John the Baptist on the roof, 5239-5242 ; Old Testament 
series in the Nave, 5243-5247 ; New Testament series in 
the nave, 5248-5249 ; Large Crucifixion in the Northern 
Transept, 5250; Angels in the Northern Transept, 5251 ; 
Life of St. Francis in the nave, 5253-5277. 

Lower Church of S. Francesco. — Over the High Altar, 
Marriage of St. Francis with Lady Poverty, 5301 ; Chastity, 
5302 ; Obedience, 5303 ; The Glory of St. Francis, 5304 ; 
Southern Transept, Madonna and Child, &c, attributed to 
Cimabue, 5305 ; frescoes in the Southern Transept, 5306- 
5317; Four Saints (Sienese), 5319; Northern Transept 
frescoes, 5325-5336 ; Madonna and Child, with SS. Francis 
and John Evangelist, 5337 ; Chapel of St. Catherine, 5280- 
5281 ; Chapel of St. Mary Magdalene, 5285-5288 ; Chapel 
of St. Martin, 5290-5296 ; figures under the Entrance Arch- 
way of St. Martin, 5297-5300 ; Chapel of St. Nicholas, 
5320-5324. 

Orvieto — The Duomo. — The Facade, general view, 4931 ; 
Madonna and Child over the central door, 4933A ; general 
view of the Creation Pier, 4938 ; detail of the Creation 
Pier, 4942-4945 ; general view of the Pier of Prophecy, 
4939 ; detail, 4946, 4947, 4948, 4949, 4949A, 4949^, 4949C, 
4949D ; general view of the Pier of the Life of Christ, 
4940 ; detail, 495°, 495 1, 495ia, 495IB, 495*c, 495 ID » 495IE, 
4951F; general view of the Judgment Pier, 4941 ; detail, 
4952, 4953 ; Cappella della Madonna di S. Brizio on the 
roof, Christ in Judgment, 5481 ; Prophets, 5482 ; Signs of the 
Passion, 5498; Apostles, 5499: Patriarchs, 5500; Doctors, 



390 THE UM BRIAN TOWNS 

5501 ; Martyrs, 5502 ; Virgins, 5503 ; large frescoes on the 
walls — Antichrist, 5483 ; Fire coming down from Heaven, 
5488 ; Confusion on Earth, 5490 ; Resurrection, 5492 ; The 
Wicked carried off to Hell, 5493 ; The Sufferings in Hell 
5495 ; The Blessed Crowned in Paradise, 5496 ; The 
Blessed led up to Heaven, 5497. 

Montefalco — In S. Francesco. — Life of St. Francis, by 
Benozzo Gozzoli, 5425-5438 ; Angels, by Benozzo Gozzoli 
5453 - 5454 ; Altarpiece, by Benozzo Gozzoli, 5460 ; Nativity, 
by Perugino, 5471. 

Spello — In Sta. Maria Maggiore. — By Pinturicchio : The 
Annunciation, 5729 ; The Nativity, 5732 ; Christ among the 
Doctors, 5734. At S. Girolamo — The Sposalizio, 5742. 

Foligno — In the Trinci Chapel. — By Ottaviano Nelli : 
5396-5412. Church of S. Niccolo. — Altarpiece, by Niccolo 
da Foligno, 5390 ; Coronation of the Virgin, by Niccolo da 
Foligno, 5392. Church of the A?inunziata (desecrated) — 
Baptism, by Perugino, 5388. 

Trevi — In Sta. Maria delta Lagri?ne. — Adoration of the 
Magi, by Perugino, 5761. In S. Martino. — Assumption of 
the Virgin, by Lo Spagna, 5764. 

Spoleto — Duomo, the facade, 5139. Pictures, by Fra 
Filippo Lippi : Coronation of the Virgin, 5743 ; Annuncia- 
tion, 5745 ; Nativity, 5747 ; Death of the Virgin, 5746 ; 
Church of S. Agostino del Crocefisso, 5159; Church of S. 
Pietro, 5160 ; detail on S. Pietro, 5161, 5162. 

S. Giacomo, near Spoleto. — Frescoes, 5752-5758. 

Panicale, fresco of S. Sebastian, by Perugino, 5796. 

The following list of books is intended to suggest a course 
of reading which will be found useful to travellers in Central 
Italy. 

" Lives of the most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and 
Architects," by Giorgio Vasari. The best edition is that of 
Sansoni, with notes by Milanesi, in 9 vols. A selection of 
seventy of the most important lives has been translated, 
with notes by G. H. and G. W. Blashfield and A. A. 
Hopkins, 4 vols. 



LIST OF BOOKS 391 

"Sketches of the History of Christian Art," by Lord 
Lindsay, 2 vols. 

"A New History of Painting in Italy," by J. A. Crowe 
and G. B. Cavalcaselle, 3 vols. 

"Tuscan Sculptors," by Charles C. Perkins, 2 vols. 

" Italian Sculptors," by Charles C. Perkins, 1 vol. 

" Handbook of Painting." The Italian schools based on 
the handbook of Kugler, revised and in part rewritten by 
Sir A. H. Layard, 2 vols. 

" Renaissance in Italy," by J. A. Symonds, 7 vols. 

(" The Fine Arts," in vol. iii. of the series.) 

" History of Painting," Woltman and Woerman, 2 vols. 

" Florentine Painters of the Renaissance," by Bernhard 
Berenson, 1 vol. 

"The Central Italian Painters of the Renaissance," by 
Bernhard Berenson, 1 vol. 

"Perugino," by G. C. Williamson, Litt.D. 

" Signorelli," by Maud Crutwell. 

"The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria," by George 
Dennis, 2 vols. 

VArt Etrusque, Jules Martha. 

Vita di S. Francesco d'Assisi, scritta da S. Bonaventura ; 
edited by Mons. Amoni. 

"The Mirror of Perfection," edited by Paul Sabatier, 
translated by Sebastian Evans. 

" The Little Flowers of St. Francis," translated by T. W. 
Arnold. 

Vie de S. Francois d'Assisi, by Paul Sabatier. 

Franz von Assisi, by Henry Thode. 

"The Inferno" of Dante, translated by Dr. Carlisle; 
edited by H. Oelsner, M.A., Ph.D. "The Purgatory" of 
Dante, edited, with translation and notes, by A. J. Butler. 
''The Paradise" of Dante, translated by the Rev. P. H. 
Wicksteed, M.A. 

De Monarchia of Dante, translated by the Rev. P. H. 
Wicksteed, M.A. 

"The Banquet" (// Convito) of Dante, translated by 
Katharine Hillard. 



392 



THE UM BRIAN TOWNS 



The " Golden Legend ; or, Lives of the Saints," 7 vols., 
translated by W. Caxton ; edited by F. S. Ellis. 

" Sacred and Legendary Art," by Mrs. Jameson, 2 vols. 

"Legends of the Monastic Orders," by Mrs. Jameson, 
1 vol. 

"Legends of the Madonna," by Mrs. Jameson, 1 vol. 

"History of Our Lord," by Mrs. Jameson and Lady 
Eastlake, 2 vols. 



List of the Principal Artists connected with Umhria 



Aliense 

Alfani, Domenico di 

Paris 
Alfani, Orazio 
Andrea Pisano . 
Angelico, Fra 
Arnolfo di Cambio 
Baccio d'Agnolo 



pupil of Tintoretto . 



Stalls, S. Agostino, 
Perugia 



. 1483-1536 

. 1510-1583 
died after 1 349 

• 1387-1455 
. 1232-1315? 

. 1462-1543 



Baroccio 
Bernardino di Mari- 

otto 
Berto di Giovanni 
Boccati, Giovanni 
Bonfigli, Benedetto 
Botticelli . 
Campello, Fra 

Filippo di 
Caporali, Bartolom- 

meo 
Caporali, Giov. 

Batista 
Cavallini, Pietro 
Cimabue 
Danti, Vincenzo . 
Doni, Adone 
Duccio, Agostino 



working between 

living between . 
working . 



Architect Sta. Chiara, 

Assisi 
working between 



. 1528-1612 
. 1502-1521 

1497-1523 
i435?-i46o? 
1425-1496 
1 446/7- 1 5 10 

I232?-I2S3? 

. 1442-1499 

. 1 476-1 560? 

died 1364 
1 240?- 1 302? 
1 530-1 576 
1 540-1 583? 
1418-1481 



LIST OF ARTISTS 



393 



Eusebio di San working . 

Giorgio 
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo . 
Gentile da Fabriano . 

Giotto 

Giottino . . last record of 
Giovanni da Bologna . 
Giovanni Pisano 
Giunta da Pisa 
Gozzoli, Benozzo 
Guida da Siena 
Ibi, Sinibaldo 
Jacopo, Tedesco 



13th century 



. 1492-1527 

1 440/45- 1 521/22 
1360/70-1427/28 
1276-1337 
. 1369 
1 524-1608 
died 1320 



1420-1498 
. 1528 



13th century 
working in 

Architect of S. Fran- 
cesco, Assisi 
Lippi, Fra Filippo 1406-1469 



Lorenzetti, Ambrogio 
Lorenzetti, Pietro 
Lorenzo di S. Sever- 

ino 
Lorenzo di S. Sever- 

ino 
Luca della Robbia 
Maitani Lorenzo 
Mannij Giannicola 
Margaritone 
Martini, Simone 
Masolino . 
Matteo da Gualdo 
Melanzio 
Melozzo da Forli 
Melioranzius, Gre- 

gorius 
Memmi Lippo . 
Mezzastris (Pier An- 
tonio da Foligno) 
Mino da Fiesole 
Mosca, Francesco 
Mosca, Simone 



the elder, working . 

the younger, working up to 



working 

latter part of 1 5th century 



Duomo, Spoleto 

work dated 
working . 



sculptor, Orvieto 
sculptor 



died 1348 
died 1348 
1400-1416 

. 1496 

1 400- 1 482 
i275?-i33o 

died 1544 
1236-1313? 
i285?-i344 
1440? 



1383?- 
1468- 



1503 



1438-1494 



• 1317 
. 1468 

1431-1484 

1492-1553 



394 



THE UM BRIAN TOWNS 



Niccolo da Foligno 

Niccolo Pisano . 

Nuzzi, Allegretto 

Oderisio da Gubbio 

Orcagna, Andrea 

Palmerucci, Guido 

Perugino 

Piero della Francesca 

Pietro di Puccio working 

Pinturicchio 

Pisano, Andrea . 

Pisano, Giovanni 

Pisano, Niccolo . 



Mosaic, Duomo 
working 



Raphael 

Reni, Guido 

Salsernus . 

Sano di Matteo 

Santi, Giovanni . 

Sassoferrato 

Scalza, Ippolito . working 

Sebastiano del Piombo 

Signorelli, Luca . 

Spagno, Lo . working 

Stefano di Ber- Stalls, S. P 

gamo 
Taddeo di Bartolo 
Tiberio d'Assisi working 

Uccello, Paolo . 
Ugolino di Prete working 

Ilario 
Ugolino di Maestro working 

Vieri 
Vasari, Giorgio . 
Verrocchio, Andrea . 
Viti, Timoteo 



Spoleto 



ietro, Perugia 



died 1444 
1430-1500? 

I206?-I280? 

died 1365 
died 1299 

1308 ?-i 368 
1 280-1 345 
1446-1524 

I4i5?-i492 

1 37o-i 391 
1454-1513 
died after 1349 
died 1320 
I2o6?-I28o? 
1 42 9- 1 498 
1483-1520 
1 574-1642 
1207 

• 1407 
430/40-1494 

1605-1685 

• 1579 
1485-1547 
1441-1523 

1503?-! 5 30? 

• 1535 



1363-1422 
1512-1518 

1397-1475 
1364-1378 

• 1337 

1512-1574 
1435-1488 
1467-1523 



INDEX 



Abbeys, La Badia, 333 ; Sasso 

Vivo, 368 
Agostino di Duccio, sculptor, 51, 

13°. *3 8 
Albornoz, Cardinal, 240, 254," 372 
Alessi, architect, 148 
Alfani, Domenico, artist, 114; 

Orazio, 132 
Angelico, Fra, 96, 307, 319 
Ansano, S. , 249 
Anthony, St., 238 
Anthony the Abbot, 247 
Antichrist, 316 

Apocalypse, Scenes of the, 194 
Apostles, Acts of the, 192 
Aquinas, St. Thomas, 140, 326, 

3 2 7. 330 
Arnolfo del Cambio, 62, 278, 331 
Art, Italian, to be studied in 

Assisi, 146, 171 
Arts, The liberal, 75, 89, 288 
Assisi, Monuments of, 15, 16 ; 

history of, 144 ; temple, 146 ; 

Duomo, 147 ; Chiesa Nuova, 

153 ; Sta. M. d. Angeli, 153 ; Rivo 

Torto, 160 ; S. Damiano, 161 ; 

Carceri, 165 ; S. Francesco, 

167 ; artistic influences in, 171 ; 

significance of frescoes, 180 ; 

upper church, 186 ; lower 

church, 210 ; Sta. Chiara, 242 ; 

Cappella dei Pellegrini, 246 
Augustine, St., 139; quoted, 181, 

337 

Baccio d'Agnolo, 51, 125 
Baglioni Family, 23 ; Gianpaolo, 
25 ; Bishop, 51, 120 ; chapel of, 

134 
Banners, in Perugia, 117; in 
Gubbio, 336 



395 



Bartolo, Taddeo, 100 
Beccherini Party in Perugia, 21 
Benedict XL, Tomb of, 130 
Benedict, St., 128, 133 
Benedictine foundation, 128, 131, 

-154 
Bernardino, S., 119, 139, 164, 

258 
Bernardino di Mariotto, 114, 116, 

117 
Boccati, Giovanni, 95, 103 
Bolsena, Miracle of, 279, 323, 

326 
Bonfigli, Benedetto, 96, 104, 106, 

118, 133 
Bonifazio, 133 
Brizio, S., 307, 386 
Bucchero ware, 39, 265, 350 
Byzantine influence, 172, 374 

Camaldolese Order, 128 
Cambio, Sala del, 16, 81 
Campello, Filippo da, 167, 244 
Canopi, Etruscan vases, 269, 352 
Carceri, Hermitage of the, 165 
Catherine of Alexandria, St., 183, 

240 
Celts, The, in Italy, 11 
Chapters of the Franciscans, 157 
Chastity, personified, 222 
Chiara, Sta., 156, 161, 242, 244 
Chiusi, 345 ; Duomo, 346 ; Etrus- 
can tombs, 346 ; museums, 350 
Choir stalls, 121, 125, 135, 153, 

274 
Choral Books, 134 
Christ, Scenes from the life of, 83, 
181, 188, 210, 227, 245, 295, 302 
Church, The influence of the, 14. 

17, 79, 171 ; symbol of, 80 
Cliurclies, S. Agostino of Perugia, 



396 



INDEX 



29, 125 ; of Montefalco, 362 ; 
of Gubbio, 337; of Spoleto, 
385 : S. Andrea, Orvieto, 331 ; 
S. Andrea, Spello, 364 ; S. 
Angelo, Perugia, 29, 126 ; S. 
Ansano, Spoleto, 385 : S. An- 
nunziata, Foligno, 367 ; S. 
Bernardino, Perugia, 30, 138 ; 
S. Chiara, Assisi, 242 ; S. Cos- 
tanzo, Perugia, 15, 30, 135; 
S. Damiano, Assisi, 161 ; S. 
Domenico, Perugia, 15, 30, 
129 ; S. Domenico, Orvieto, 
330; S. Ercolano, Perugia, 
30 ; S. Francesco al Monte, 
Perugia, 29, 127 ; S. Fran- 
cesco del Prato, Perugia, 30, 
118, 141 ; S. Francesco, Assisi, 
15, 16, 147, 167-241 ; S. Fran- 
cesco, Orvieto, 332 ; S. For- 
tunato, Montefalco, 363 ; S. 
Giorgio, Assisi, 167, 245 ; S. 
Giovenale, Orvieto, 332 ; S. 
Girolamo, Spello, 364 ; S. Giu- 
liano, Spoleto, 386; S. Illu- 
minato, Montefalco, 362 ; S. 
Leonardo, Montefalco, 362 ; 
S. M. Nuova, Perugia, 29, 118; 
S. M. Nuova, Gubbio, 340 ; 
S. M. degli Angeli, Assisi, 153 ; 
S. M. dei Bianchi, Citta della 
Pieve, 344; S. M. delle La- 
grime, Trevi, 369 ; S. M. Infra 
Portas, Foligno, 368 ; S. Mar- 
tino, Trevi, 370; S. Niccolo, 
Foligno, 367 ; S. Pietro, Perugia, 

30, 131 ; S. Pietro, Spoleto, 
15, 16, 380 ; S. Sebastiano, 
Panicale, 343 ; S. Severo, Peru- 
gia, 29, 128 

Cimabue, 216, 244 
Citta della Pieve, 344 
Communes, The Italian, 14 
Costanzo, St., 61, 135, 307 
Countess Matilda, Territory of, 

19. 333 
Creation, Scenes of, in Assisi, 186 ; 
in Orvieto, 284 

Dante, quoted, 67, 81, 89, 181, 

310, 320, 321 
Dionysiac subjects on vases, 265 
Doctors, of the Church, 130, 198, 

280, 303 



Dominic, Saint, 157 

Dono Doni, 238 

Duomo, of Assisi, 15, 144, 147, 
276 ; of Gubbio, 342 ; of Or- 
vieto, 15, 16, 276 ; of Perugia, 
120; of Spello, 363 ; of Spoleto, 
*5> 374 ; of Trevi, 370 

Egidio, Frate, 127, 142 

Elias, Frate, 156, 167 

Emiliano, S., 370 

Empire, The, 18, 61, 77, 87 

Ercolano, S. , 52, 80, 93, 104 

Etruscans, The, in Umbria, 11, 
T 5> 2 7I general note on, 30; 
religion, 32 ; art, 34 ; architec- 
ture, 35 ; museum in Perugia, 
36; tombs, 55, 58; tombs in 
Orvieto, 254 ; paintings, 258 ; 
museums, 263; in Chiusi, tombs, 
346 ; museums, 350 

Eugubine Tables, 337 

Eusebio di San Giorgio, 96, 114, 

133. 342 
Evangelists, The symbols of the, 
136, 150, 162, 197, 280, 303, 342 ; 
meaning of, 375 

Fables, 69, 70, 383 

Faina, collection of, 268 

Filippeschi Family, 251, 253 

Filippo Lippi, 376, 378 

Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, 96, 108 

Flaminian Way, 12 

Florentine School, 174, 178, 216 

Foligno, 365; Palazzo del Governo, 
365 ; Annunziata, 367 ; S. Nic- 
colo, 367; S. M. Infra Portas, 
368 ; Abbey of Sasso Vivo, 368 

Font, Orvieto, 329 

Fortebraccio, 23, 41, 143, 254 

Fortress, of Orvieto, 254; Spoleto, 
372 

Fountain, of Perugia, 62 

Francis, St. , influence of, 145 ; 
memorials of, in Assisi, 146 ; life, 
154 ; at S. Damiano, 161 ; ideal 
of, 182 ; conformity of life with 
that of Christ, 185 ; scenes from 
life in upper church, 199 ; in 
lower church, 217 ; receives the 
Stigmata, 218 ; marriage with 
poverty, 220 ; glory of, 225 ; 
tomb of, 242; at Montefalco, 358 



INDEX 



397 



Franciscans, in Perugia, 142 ; 

general chapters, 157 
Frederick II., 152, 163 

Genii, Etruscan, 33, 262, 350, 356 

Gentile da Fabriano, 95, 330 

Giorgio, Maestro, 336 

Giotteschi, The, 145, 361 

Giotto, relation to Franciscans, 
145 ; influence of, 178 ; work in 
S. Francesco, 179, 218 

Gothic style, examples of, 15, 
130, 132, 244, 276 

Gozzoli, Benozzo, 96, 100, 358, 
361 

Gregory the Great, 129, 133 

Gregory IX. , 156, 163, 167 

Gutobio, 335 ; municipal build- 
ings, 33 6 ; s - Agostino, 337; 
S. M. Nuova, 340 ; Palazzo 
Ducale, 341 ; Duomo, 342 

Guilds, Trade, 14 ; in Perugia, 20, 
21, 81 ; of money changers, 82 

Heavens, The— associated with 

the sciences, 89 
Heroes of Greece, 40, 44, 48 ; of 

Rome, 85 

Ibi, Sinibaldo, 114, 342 

Ideals, Latin and Teutonic, 18 ; 
Ascetic, 139 ; of St. Francis, 
183 ; of Holy Poverty, 184 

Jacobus, architect, 167 
James Major, St. , 247, 386 
Judgment, The Last, 300, 308, 319 

Labours of the months, 65, 71 
Lawrence, St., 182 
Library of Perugia, 60 
Lombards, The, 13, 17, 372 
Lorenzetti, Pietro, artist, 220 
Louis, St. , of Toulouse, 104 
Louis, St., the King, 127, 177, 

216 ; chapel of, 238 
Luca della Robbia, 52, 160 

Maitani, architect, 277 
Manni, Giannicola, 92, 114, 116, 

125 
Margaritone, artist, 100, 246 
Martin, St., 183; life of, 228; 

chapel of, 177, 228 



Martin, Simone, 176, 216, 274 
Mary Magdalene, St., 182; 

chapel of, 234 
Matteo da Gualdo, artist, 247 
Melanzio, artist, 362 
Mezzastris, artist, 247, 368 
Michelotti Biordo, 23 
Mino da Fiesole, 134 
Monaldeschi Family, 251, 253, 

332 
Montefalco, 358; S. Francesco, 

358 ; S. Agostino, 362 ; other 

churches, 363 
Monte Luco, 372 
Mosca, Simone, sculptor, 307, 334 
Museums, of Perugia, 36, 50 ; of 

Orvieto, 263. 275 ; of Chiusi, 

35o 
Myths, Greek, on Etruscan 
chests, 37, 40, 269 ; in the 
Duomo, Orvieto, 313 ; at 
Chiusi, 355 

Nelli, Martino, 95 ; Ottaviano, 

95. 169, 337, 341, 365 
Niccolo da Foligno, artist, 96, 

119, 152, 367 
Nicholas, St. , 183 ; chapel of, 232 
Nuzzi, Allegretto, 95 

Obedience, personified, 223 

Oddi Family, 24 

Oderigi, artist, 95, 337 

Opera del Duomo, Orvieto, 263 

Orcagna, Andrea, sculptor, 278, 

281 
Orsini Family, 168, 232 
Orvieto, Monuments of, 15 ; art 

in, 16 ; history of, 250 ; palaces 

253 ; fortress, 254 ; Necropolis 

254 ; tombs, 257 ; museums, 
263, 274; convent, 258; Duomo, 
276 ; facade, 279 ; piers, 281 ; 
choir, 302 ; Chapel of S. Brizio, 
307 ; Chapel of the Corporale, 
323 ; S. Domenico, 330 ; S. 
Andrea, 331 ; S. Francesco, 
332 ; S. Giovenale, 332 ; La 
Badia, 333; Well of St. 
Patrick, 333 

Overbeck, artist, 160 

Painting, Italian, 16, 146 
Palaces in Orvieto, 253 



398 



INDEX 



Palazzo Pubblico in Perugia, 59 ; 

Orvieto, 253 ; Foligno, 365 ; 

Gubbio, 336 ; Spoleto, 384 
Palmerucci, Guido, artist, 95 
Panicale, 343 ; S. Sebastiano, 

343 

Papacy, The, in Perugia, 19, 23 ; 
as a guide to felicity, 79 ; in 
Orvieto, 254 

Pellegrini, Cappella dei, 246 

Perugia, Monuments of, 15, 16 ; 
annals of, 17 ; gateways, 25 ; 
routes, 29 ; museum, 36 ; 
Church of University, 53 ; 
tombs, 55 ; Palazzo Pubblico, 
59; fountain, 62; Sala del 
Cambio, 81 ; picture gallery, 
94 ; Duomo, 120 ; Canonica, 
123 ; S. Martino, 125 ; S. 
Agostino, 125 ; S. Angelo, 126 ; 
S. Francesco al Monte, 127 ; 
S. Severo, 128 ; S. Domenico, 
129 ; S. Pietro, 131 ; S. Cos- 
tanzo, 135 ; S. Bernardino, 
138 ; S. Francesco del Prato, 
141 

Perugino, House of, 28 ; frescoes, 
83 ; portrait, 90 ; art of, 96, 97, 
no, 129, 160, 343, 344, 361, 

367. 369 
Piccinino, 23, 51 
Picture gallery of Perugia, 94 ; of 

Spoleto, 384 ; Trevi, 370 
Piero della Francesca, 95, 96, 103 
Pietro di Catana, 156, 160 
Pinturicchio, artist, 96, 112, 134, 

258, 363 
Piombo, Sebastiano del, artist, 

133 

Pisano, Andrea, 278, 281 
Pisano, Giunta, 100, 158, 159, 

167 
Pisano, Niccolo and Giovanni, 

62 ; Giovanni, 130, 277, 281 ; 

Nino, 275 
Pollajuolo, Antonio, artist, 96 
Porziuncola, Chapel of the, 153 
Pottery, Etruscan, 39, 46, 265, 

350 ; of Gubbio, 336 
Poverty, Holy, 183, 184, 220 

Raphael, 96, 128 
Raspanti, in Perugia, 21, 59 
Renaissance, style, 139, 374 



Reni, Guido, artist, 134, 158 
Ring, The Virgin's, 121, 345 
Rivo, Torto, Church of, 160 
Romans, The, in Umbria, 12, 15 ; 
remains in Perugia, 126; in 
Assisi, 144 ; in Spello, 363 ; in 
Spoleto, 371 
Romanesque peoples, 15 ; sculp- 
tures, 54, 137, 149, 175 ; style, 

136, 333. 374. 376, 380 
Romualdo, St., 128 

Rufino, St. , patron of Assisi, 147, 
149, 152 

Sammicheli, architect, 307, 331 
San Gallo, architect, 333 
Sarcophagus, Christian, 53 
Sassoferrato, artist, 133, 134 
Sasso Vivo, Abbey of, 368 
Savoy, House of, 14 
Scalza, Lo, sculptor, 276, 279 
Scholastica, St., 129 
Sculpture, Etruscan, 36, 264,269, 

350, 352; in Umbria, 15; 

mediaeval, 53; Romanesque, 

137, 149, 380 ; Orvieto facade, 
281 

Sermei, artist, 238 

Sibyls, The, 87, 238, 290, 378 

Sienese School, 173, 176, 217, 

231. 245 
Signorelli, artist, 16, 96, 121, 276, 

.308, 319 
Simone, Martini, artist, 176, 216, 

274 
Spagna, Lo, 96, 115, 160, 369, 

370. 3 86 
Spello, Roman remains, 15, 363 ; 

Duomo, 363 ; S. Andrea and 

S. Girolamo, 364 
Spoleto, Monuments of, 15, 16 ; 

history, 370 ; Roman remains, 

371 ; fortress, 372 ; Monte 

Luco, 372 ; Duomo, 374 ; S. 

Pietro, 380 ; Palazzo Pubblico, 

384 ; S. Ansano, 385 ; S. 

Agostino, 385 ; S. Giuliano, 386 
Stanislas, St., 182 ; chapel of, 238 
Stephen, St., 238 
Studio Generate, in Perugia, 21 ; 

Orvieto, 254 
Subasio, Monte, 154 
Symbolical animals, 137, 149, 214, 

330. 333. 38x 



INDEX 



399 



Temple of Minerva, 146 
Testaments, Old and New, their 
relation, 181 ; scenes from, 186, 

377. 379 
Teutonic ideal, 14, 17 ; life, 18 ; 

empire, 19, 20 
Tiberio d'Assisi, 158, 164, 370 
Torre di Manno, 58 
Trevi, 369 ; S. M. d'Lagrime, 

369 ; Duomo, 370 ; S. Martino, 

37o 
Trinci Family, 365 
Tuscan style of painting, 173, 174 

UGOLiNOdi Maestro Vieri, 275, 329 
Ugolino di Prete Ilario, 302, 325 
Umbrians, The, n, 337 
Umbrian School, 16, 94 
University of Perugia, 21, 29; 
museum of, 36 



Vadimonian Lake, 12, 250 

Vasari, artist, 134 

Vases, painted, 46, 267 

Virgil, 311 

Virgin, Scenes from the life of, 

190, 279, 280, 302, 366 
Virtues, Symbols of the, 60, 84, 

101, 120; Franciscan, 183; 

allegories of, 220, 330 
Viti, Timoteo, artist, 336, 342 
Volsinii, 250 
Volumnii, Tombs of the, 55 



Well of St. Patrick, Orvieto, 
333 



Zodiac, natural and spiritual, 71, 
368 



THE END 



Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson &° Co. 
Edinburgh &= London 



APR 3 1902 



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